This chapter examines the development of the law governing warfare on land in Renaissance Europe. In this formative period, the law of war became a central feature of international relations and a distinct legal field. Wars of religion, the growth of the Ottoman Empire, dynastic disputes and the European expansion all contributed to an almost permanent state of warfare. Against this background, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, several scholars contributed to the development of the law of war, responding to the political, religious and cultural turmoil of the Iron Century by elaborating different theories of such law. They derived concepts and principles from medieval theology, canon and civil law, as well as from history, literature and philosophy. The chapter relies on both primary and secondary sources drawing on state and military practice as well as scholarly – legal, historical and relevant military literature. It surveys the major principles of the ius in bello on land, the international law governing warfare including booty, siege warfare and the treatment of civilians and prisoners of war. Rather than describing the distinct contributions of several scholars to the early modern jus in bello – which could not do justice to the works of relevant scholars, especially in the light of recent outstanding works in the field – this chapter adopts an analytical approach focusing on key themes of the jus in bello, analysing and critically assessing the contributions of various scholars to the same.

Zilka Spahić Šiljak utilizes the concept of ‘feminist religiosity’ to demonstrate how Islam plays a crucial role in shaping everyday struggles of women in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH), enabling them to live in a more fulfilling way. The chapter highlights the influential role of Islamic spirituality, particularly Sufi traditions emphasizing love, care, and service, in empowering women to pursue feminist endeavours across various domains such as non-governmental organizations, media, and academia.

Shahla Haeri analyzes how Muslim women have played significant roles as political leaders in both historical and contemporary contexts. The chapter highlights how this occurs despite selective use of a hadith to deny women political authority. Haeri presents a detailed reading of the Queen of Sheba in the Qur’an, arguing that Islam legitimizes women’s exercise of the highest levels of political authority.

Mahjabeen Dhala provides insight into how the wives of the Prophet Muhammad serve as role models for Muslim women. The chapter demonstrates how these women chose to live by the high moral standards expected of them and exercised agency not only within traditional roles but also in the socio-political life of the nascent Muslim community.

The introduction offers a comprehensive view of the central debates within the study of Women and Islam. It familiarizes the readers with the theoretical and methodological discussions across the main disciplinary fields involved in this research. Furthermore, it delineates the overarching framework for the volume and underscores how each chapter tackles a fundamental issue, linking it to broader discussions, and also suggests promising directions for future research.

D. Fairchild Ruggles reviews the role Muslim women have played as patrons of art, architecture, and the urban environment. The chapter presents case studies from various regions and time periods, highlighting the diverse motives and reasons behind these acts of patronage.

Karen Bauer offers a comprehensive review of the Islamic moral framework as outlined in the Qur’an, situating Islamic gender norms within this context. The chapter demonstrates how these norms support a hierarchical structure that also emphasizes fairness.

Liv Tønnessen documents trends in the study of women’s involvement in political Islam movements. The chapter draws on examples from various country contexts, followed by a case study of Sudan, to illustrate how women within these movements respect foundational rulings while adapting specific aspects of Islamic law to contemporary realities.

Zuzanna Olszewska explores the poetic and literary agency of Muslim women across time and genres. The chapter reviews both literary and anthropological studies that have deepened our understanding of the importance of written scholarship and oral poetry produced by Muslim women. It also presents a case study of Muslim female poets of Afghani origin now living in the diaspora.

Nelly van Doorn-Harder documents how Muslim women have historically played a crucial role in shaping society. Focusing on Muslim women’s social activism in Indonesia, the chapter highlights five distinct stages leading to the current peak, where women’s activism has shaped important policy outcomes and shifts in attitudes related to the protection of women’s rights and the promotion of human rights in society.

Nina Nurmila provides a review of key scholarly figures in the field of Islamic feminism and their methodological approaches. She emphasizes how, in Indonesia, their influence has permeated the wider Muslim community more effectively than in other contexts, thanks to local scholars disseminating their ideas through vernacular Islamic scholarship.

Maria Jaschok analyzes the opportunities and challenges faced by Muslim women living as a minority, particularly in contexts where religion is under pressure. The chapter highlights the dynamism exhibited by female imams (ahongs) in China, who have strategically leveraged the pressure on male authority imposed by the Chinese state to carve out a larger role for themselves. The chapter also shows how these women seek to connect with the global Muslim community, or ummah, while relating Islam to their everyday realities.