The Conclusion first reiterates the three main arguments of the book. It then surveys changes and continuities in global education and development policies since the 1960s, while also touching on the present state of public education in Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire. It closes by reflecting on education’s double-edged nature as it relates to the problem of freedom: Does education emancipate, or oppress?

There are also purely algebraic reasons why nilpotent groups should be of interest. Firstly, there is the well-known connection between homology, lower central series and (Massey) products [Dw75, St65].

Chapter 7 looks at the role of officials in carrying out religious policy. It begins with an analysis of their social profile from the 1950s to the Cultural Revolution and shows that despite officials’ rising literacy and improved political education, they found it hard to carry out a policy that demanded respect for religious freedom, on the one hand, and the elimination of folk religion, coded as ‘feudal superstition’. The chapter looks at four dimensions of officials’ involvement in implementing religious policy: their response to the destruction of lineages and to the persistence of lineage sentiment; their involvement in the levelling of gravesites during collectivization; their relationship to the popular upsurge to restore the ‘sacred village’ in the aftermath of the famine; and the support of a significant minority in sustaining folk religion. It shows grassroots officials displayed a variety of responses to folk religion, which affected the experiences of believers.

This chapter examines the foreign teacher recruitment strategies mobilized by Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire. Economists and politicians agreed that secondary schools were crucial for producing the skilled workers essential to development. But new nations faced an intractable roadblock as they sought to expand secondary schools: a deficit of local teachers. Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire found different solutions to the crisis of teacher scarcity, although both relied on foreigners. Ghana turned to plural sources of generally inexperienced educators. Côte d’Ivoire, instead, leaned on French teachers available through technical assistance (or coopération). Both strategies responded to the maddening paradox of the postcolonial teacher: a role that West Africans agreed was essential, but which few opted to pursue. Ultimately, the reliance on foreign teachers contributed to the corrosion of the emancipatory project of public education.

In this chapter, we provide an overview of how second languages (L2s) are acquired, processed and represented in the brain. We begin by reviewing experimental methods, along with relevant studies employing them, with a particular focus on fMRI and EEG, two metabolic and electrophysiological measures that elucidate our knowledge of multiple languages in one brain. We then discuss a few moderating effects of L2 acquisition along with a dialogue of how multilinguals process structure and meaning as elaborated in key theories. Finally, we elaborate on how research on multiple memory systems can possibly shed light on the acquisition and teaching of L2s in the classroom with respect to the effectiveness of the explicit presentation of grammar rules and feedback. We conclude by identifying research topics that are shaping ongoing work in bilingual processing and sparking new dialogues that have the potential to significantly advance the field.

In this chapter, we present and discuss the contributions that usage-based theories of language have made to the theory and practice of second language learning and teaching. Soon after its establishment as an independent theoretical framework, usage-based linguistics inaugurated an applied branch with two volumes by Pütz et al. dedicated to second language acquisition (SLA) and language pedagogy (LP). Rather unusually, usage-based theories retained a close link between linguistic theory, the theoretical study of language acquisition and the development of language pedagogy, resulting in a number of direct applications of usage-based linguistic insights to the study of language learning and teaching.Because of the crucial role that cognitive capacities play in usage-based approaches they are naturally amenable to the integration of insights from psychology. We will zoom in on a particularly fruitful line of research that has seen insights from the psychology of learning applied to language across L1 and in L2. Looking ahead, we discus work that puts learning models from psychology to use for the operationalisation of the usage-based notion of emergence, thereby challenging traditional assumptions regarding the mental representations of language attributed to language learners by linguists and how these apply to the theory and practice of L2 learning and teaching.

The presence of witches in Walter Scott’s Waverly novels is suggestive of social and occasionally political disorder, but their presence – like the context of revolutionary crises – also provides his male characters with an opportunity to confront something larger than themselves, a possibly inimical force, and to evolve in this process. Scott, not satisfied with collecting works of demonology, decided to write one himself. This chapter investigates the tensions in his Letters on Demonology and Witchcraft between Scott’s impartiality as a demonologist and a writer of historical fiction, his antiquarian impulse and the genuine sympathy he has for women accused of witchcraft.

This chapter addresses the nature of the semantic component and its role in the second language (L2) acquisition of meaning, considering a range of properties: quantification, polarity items, articles, clefted interrogatives and referential dependency relations. It discusses guidance by preexisting conceptual components including conceptual representations and inferential processes, such as scalar inferences, in various form-meaning mappings such as lexical selection and structural interpretation. It connects L2 semantic development with first language (L1) transfer, Universal Grammar-guidance overcoming poverty of the stimulus, as well as feature reassembly in developing new lexico-grammatical representations for the L2. It highlights the role of activation thresholds for developing neurofunctional subsystems mapping syntax-semantic features to forms in L2 input processing. An L2 neurofunctional subsystem overlapping with the L1 system accounts for micro-level L1 effects together with guided L2 semantic development. The chapter thus overviews the findings of L2 semantic research suggestive of guidance by an implicit neurofunctional system for the L2. It addresses both robustness and vulnerability in aspects of L2 interpretation and highlights the vital role played by the conceptual structure component and aspects of memory in many aspects of L2 interpretive behavior.

This chapter selects two case studies to examine the presence of global experimentalist governance in ocean acidification governance: the Ocean Acidification Alliance and the International Maritime Organization. The selection distinguishes between ‘suitable’ institutions (addressing one OA activity) and those with ‘significant potential’ (addressing multiple activities within one concern or across concerns). Using a comprehensive table that maps actors and instruments, the chapter analyses how institutions address OA’s three concerns: causes (CO2, NOx/SOx), stressors (e.g., climate change, pollution, and fishing), and adaptation (blue carbon, marine protected areas, and fisheries management). Most institutions show significant potential by addressing concerns in depth and/or breadth. The OA Alliance was selected as the only institution explicitly focused on OA, addressing CO2 emissions and coastal activities. The IMO was chosen for its role in shipping emissions (both CO2 and NOx/SOx) and broader pollution control mandate. These cases differ in legalisation levels and institutional structure, providing diverse perspectives on experimentalist governance challenges. Both have significant potential and focus on CO2, the primary OA driver, making them ideal candidates for testing the implementation of global experimentalist governance.

Chapter 4 examines local concepts of right(s), dissecting the ways in which brokering and begging were viewed as charitable compensations for the lack of government protection for disabled people, but claimed by the recipients as forms of work. Aspiring to have their activities recognised as rights, they spoke a local language of entitlement that conflated the value of independent work with the ethical and political right to care, asserting obligatory rights or taxes, against the donors’ perception of gifts. The language of ‘rights’ is a space of mutual evaluation, a rich and powerful language for discussing issues of inequality, membership, personhood, welfare, and power in Kinshasa today. It is perhaps most significant as a claim for distribution than as a legal premise of entitlements. Here, the question of a rightful share becomes pertinent, as givers and receivers evoked differing views on the same transaction that expressed contradictory aspirations and values. In the absence of formal institutions to enforce informal disability privileges, people had to recognise the right to be beggars or brokers on an interpersonal level, requiring constant value tests on whether claims to assistance were legitimate. The chapter thus disrupts the classic Maussian focus on giving and production to consider the moral and political controversies associated with asking and distribution.

Chapter 8 looks at a critical moment in Keats’s life in order to trace the way, in his letters, he works through a crucial decision about his future as a writer. Focusing on a series of interlinked and in some ways ‘porous’ letters written during a single week in September 1819, the chapter discusses Keats’s sense that he is, or soon will be, ‘unpoeted’ – that he can no longer be a poet. Alone in the small city of Winchester, Keats writes a series of often overlapping letters that ultimately move him towards a decision concerning whether or not to end his career as a poet. The chapter aligns the specific circumstances of the limited space of the cathedral city in which Keats is temporarily staying with the limited space of the letter-page itself and examines how he resolves a critical life choice in and through correspondence.

This chapter begins with a brief overview of the historical connections between the fields of second language acquisition (SLA) and computer-assisted language learning (CALL). We trace the development of this field from its primarily cognitive origins to the social turn in the early 2000s and to the affective turn, with its more recent emphasis on the learner and teacher’s psychology. The latter has led to an increased recognition of the roles of individual learner differences in second and foreign language learning and the investigation of technology on learners’ motivation, emotions and self-regulation of learning both inside and outside of the classroom. The complex interaction between learner-internal and -external factors (including the mediating role of technology) has led to a view of language acquisition as a complex dynamic process, and this is increasingly evident in research on technology-mediated learning. In our synthesis, we classify recent developments into four distinctive, yet interrelated strands: technological developments, theoretical and conceptual developments, pedagogical developments, and methodological developments. In particular, we illustrate these developments with examples of technological and pedagogical innovations used for language learning such as Language MOOCs, augmented and virtual reality, big data, learning analytics and artificial intelligence.

In this chapter we shall show first that there are just thirteen 3-manifolds with restrained fundamental group which embed in homology 4-spheres, and all embed in S4. The most difficult part of the argument involves consideration of 3-manifolds which are the union of two copies of the mapping cylinder N of the orientation cover of the Klein bottle.

The redemptive religious societies represented a form of religiosity that spread rapidly in the disturbed conditions of the 1920s and 1930s. Most societies had a semi-Buddhist, millennial character, offering members the prospect of surviving the third kalpa, or cosmic cycle, which they associated with the arrival of the Maitreya Buddha. Most were non-political, but certain leaders of the largest of the societies, the Yiguandao, collaborated with the Japanese during the war and later with the Guomindang. The chapter looks at the beliefs and forms of these societies and the reasons for the CCP’s animus against them. It recounts the suppression of the societies from 1950 but shows that they were never completely eliminated. Subsequent sections examine the social profile of the societies and the nature of their appeal, including to some CCP members, and asks how and why the societies survived repression.

Scott’s sympathy for the figure of the witch is put to the test in Guy Mannering with the introduction of Meg Merrilies, the Roma prophetess and witch. Merrilies’s status as a local sibyl and matriarchal leader within the Romany community is deliberately contrasted with Guy Mannering’s academic magic as an educated English astrologer, and, later, his social standing as a colonel and beloved father/patriarch. In addition, Merrilies’s powers as a storyteller or story-shaper are also in tension with Scott’s authorial control. It is not surprising, therefore, that the climactic resolution in Guy Mannering hinges on the death of Merrilies. Yet Scott’s effort to suppress and contain the disruptive presence of Merrilies by disposing of her is not entirely successful. This chapter concludes with a brief overview of the afterlife of Meg Merrilies in theatrical productions, Keats’s famous poem, and her influence on the aged Sarah Siddons.