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In certain Eastern Algonquian languages a nasal vowel developed from the long low vowel /a:/, regardless of consonantal context. A series of experiments showed that longer vowels (regardless of height) were perceived as more nasalized than shorter ones, but only when some nasalization was actually present. Further experiments showed no evidence of an increase in nasalization for long vowels in oral contexts. If some nasalization was nonetheless introduced (either randomly or by a general increase in nasalization) into these languages, the vowels most likely to be perceived as nasalized were the long ones. This perceptual process may have been responsible for this unusual historical development.
Individual speech is a minimal system of language use and variation and yet, despite its theoretical interest, has been neglected; syntax (as against phonology) has been egregiously ignored. This article, stimulated by the work of Adam Parry and of Sapir, partly solves a thorny problem over two millennia old. Using total samples of Achilles and his interlocutors, the authors establish nine categories of discriminatory variables in rhetoric, discourse, and syntax; ‘expressive rhetoric’, asyndeton, and particles are particularly revealing. The speech of Achilles is related to the personality which it symbolizes. Our conclusions concern three major open questions in the study of individual variation.
This article discusses two aspects of definite and indefinite NP's in the grammar of Spanish: SPECIFICITY, which is formally marked by the mood of restrictive relative clauses; and EXISTENTIAL IMPORT, which derives from the linguistic environment by principles connected with presuppositions in general. Specificity and existential import belong to the grammar of Spanish, not to the realm of pragmatics. In Spanish, Donnellan's referential descriptions constitute a sub-set of specific NP's (definite specific NP's in the singular with an existential presupposition determined by the linguistic environment). Attributive descriptions, on the other hand, are singular, definite, nonspecific NP's having an existential presupposition.