Expanding on the two viewpoints introduced in Chapter 1, this chapter establishes the conversation within fundamental psychological theories. Social Comparison Theory, Self-Determination Theory, and the Hierarchical Model of Physical Self-Concept are introduced as frameworks for comprehending the motivational and anxiety-inducing components of fitness technology. The theoretical foundation provided will guide the analysis in subsequent chapters by connecting theory with empirical data on the psychological effects of fitness technology.

The integration of fitness technology into daily life is evident, as wearable devices, fitness apps, and social media platforms motivate users to establish and monitor goals, track progress, and participate in community-centered fitness endeavors (Woessner et al., 2021). It is crucial to analyze the theoretical frameworks that elucidate human motivation, self-evaluation, and social behavior in order to comprehend the intricate psychological impacts of these technologies. The chapter elucidates three fundamental theories—Social Comparison Theory, Self-Determination Theory, and the Hierarchical Model of Physical Self-Concept—each providing significant perspectives on the impact of fitness technology on users’ mental well-being, self-image, and concerns related to the body.

The international drug control regime, as constructed over the past century, operates on a foundational but empirically debatable premise that the complete elimination of non-medical drug use is achievable. Despite periodic reafrmation of this goal, most recently through four global political declarations over the last 16 years (detailed in Chapter 3), the empirical record shows persistent growth in drug markets, widening geographic reach, and increasing consumption across all continents. The strategy of prohibition, though designed with public health and safety in mind, has generated a range of adverse structural outcomes. The UN itself, in 2008, acknowledged what it called the unintended consequences of drug control when looking into the outcomes of a century of international drug laws (since the Shanghai Opium Commission of 1909). These included the displacement of policy priorities, the militarization of enforcement, the global redistribution of drug production and violence, and the marginalization of drug consumers. These are not marginal efects; they are systemic, recurrent, and measurable. The illicit drug economy, the second illicit market globally, thrives in the vacuum created by prohibition, fnancing organized crime and destabilizing governance structures, especially in low- and middle-income transit or producer regions.

Moreover, the rigidity of drug control law has increasingly collided with other established areas of international legal obligation, especially human rights, health, and development. Tensions arise not merely from competing goals but from institutional and legal incompatibilities. For example, international drug treaties’ interpretation and implementation promoted incarceration over treatment, criminalization over harm reduction, and control over access for legitimate medical uses while certainly allowing countries to sovereignly choose the degree of severity.

There are generally three ways of organizing EU policies: (a) a field has concurrent policies (where both the member states and the EU have competencies in the same field). However, they do not do the same things. An example is environmental policy. The European Union has laws on water eminence and air quality, while the member states deal with recycling; (b) an arena has exclusive competence for the European Union (i.e., there is no member state involvement). An illustration is the single currency; and (c) supporting competences (where the EU helps actions of the member states). These divisions of competences are covered by articles in the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU).

Cutting across (a) and (b) are some concrete individual policies (e.g., the single market; economic and monetary union; security and defense; and the area of freedom, security, and justice [formerly called: justice and home affairs]). This list is by no means exhaustive of EU policies, but the selected practical policies demonstrate that some of them are more centralized than others. I will proceed in the above order.

Introduction

We are familiar with the technological shift from “analog”—that is, celluloid- based photochemical negatives and their subsequent “prints”—to digital image-making. This crossover accelerated in the late 1990s and has achieved near-complete takeover. Shooting “on flm”—whether to render still or moving images—is now a novelty and an extravagance; even as digital was displacing its forebears, the technology soft-pedaled the loss of analog (and users’ intense nostalgia for it) by implicating aesthetic traits of flm in the digital realm: hence, “flters” and “flm stocks” and other artifacts (such as grain, dust, scratches). In a bid for an otherwise elided continuity, the physical construction of digital cameras retained characteristics of predecessor apparatuses, including the all-important sound of a shutter release (a kind of sonic skeuomorph). Concurrent with these savvy bits of design and fabrication legerdemain, digital photography inaugurated another radical diference from analog limits: the specter of near-infnite capture on solid-state drives for mere pennies. As a result, only a few decades after the digital onslaught, civilization teems with manifold more images than would be feasible through once conventional, analog means. And as a further fllip on these year-over-year transformations, social media became a catalytic mode for nearly frictionless and free global dissemination of digital images. Even with this imposing juggernaut of change, we are at present, in the midst of the mid-2020s, already well-launched on yet another medial crossover. Not from digital to some newer lens-based or circuit-situated silicon storage technology, but to a wholesale rethinking of what “image generation” entails.

The international drug control regime, based on the three core international drug conventions, remains one of the most universally ratifed and enduring legal frameworks of the modern era. It refects a broad and long-standing consensus. No single country can, in isolation, confront the challenges posed by illicit drug markets. Even before the founding of the United Nations, it was recognized that drug-related criminality, propelled by persistent global demand, vast illicit revenues, and powerful criminal organizations, represents a threat not confned within national borders. The international community responded by developing a system that aimed, on the one hand, to suppress the illicit production, trafcking, and non-medical use of drugs, and on the other, to ensure the availability of controlled substances for legitimate medical and scientifc purposes.

The creation of this system was a testament to multilateralism and the shared aspirations of the international community. Yet, while its objectives were noble, the implementation of the drug control regime has produced profound negative consequences, consequences that have profoundly impacted individuals, communities, and entire nations.

Part 3 of the discussion transitions toward a forward-looking perspective, examining recommendations and future directions to promote a balanced and mindful approach in personal and societal settings.

Summary of Core Findings

Throughout the book, an examination of fitness technology has unveiled a complex dual influence on users’ mental health. Despite the motivational advantages provided by fitness technology, especially with its goal-setting and tracking functions, there are potential risks associated with its social comparison components, such as social physique anxiety. Through the establishment of a structured setting enabling users to establish, monitor, and accomplish individualized objectives, fitness technology has successfully corresponded with Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985), emphasizing the significance of fulfilling psychological needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness (Ryan & Deci, 2020). By engaging in self-monitoring and utilizing data-driven feedback, users enhance their physical self-concept, as evidenced by the positive relationship between technology usage and selfconcept (Marsh, 1996).

On the other hand, the incorporation of social comparison elements, like leaderboards, peer progress sharing, and social media integration, brings about a different psychological aspect. Social Comparison Theory (Festinger, 1954) provides understanding of this phenomenon by suggesting that individuals assess themselves by comparing with others, especially in areas lacking clear benchmarks (Crusius et al., 2022). Within the realm of fitness technology, this element may prompt users to critically assess themselves, particularly if they believe they are falling short of others’ accomplishments (Limone & Toto, 2022). This contrast frequently intensifies social physique anxiety, an emotional reaction to perceived evaluation of one's physical appearance, with numerous subjects in this research noting increased self-awareness when observing the advancement of others (Zartaloudi et al., 2023).

This chapter highlights the ethical responsibilities of developers, fitness professionals, and policymakers in the development of user-centric fitness technology. This chapter underscores the significance of user privacy, ethical data usage, and the development of technology that reduces social comparison, setting the stage for the aspirational future of fitness technology in the concluding chapter.

Summary of Key Insights

The research has shed light on the dual effects of fitness technology on users’ mental well-being, encompassing both its empowering capabilities and the psychological susceptibilities it may bring about (Codina et al., 2024). The research results indicate that fitness technology is a valuable instrument for self-enhancement. It promotes physical self-awareness and drive through organized feedback, goal setting, and community involvement. Through enhancing users’ feelings of competence and promoting autonomy, fitness technology is in accorDoğance with the tenets of Self-Determination Theory, proving to be a potent incentive for individuals pursuing fitness-related personal development (Ryan & Deci, 2020).

Prime Minister Anthony Albanese announces draft constitutional wording at Garma Festival on 30 July 2022. Photograph credit: Michael Franchi, ABC.

Introduction

In the lead up to the 2023 referendum on the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Voice, the risks associated with the proposed amendment to the Constitution became a major point of contention in the legal community. There was debate over whether the new constitutional provision would be justiciable, the approach to interpretation the High Court would adopt, and how the Voice would interact with the complex body of administrative law found in the common law, statute and the Constitution. Remarkably, these technical legal questions became a prominent part of the wider public debate on the Voice. For a brief period in early 2023, justiciability – a topic which ordinarily few lawyers, let alone members of the public, care about – was major news in Australia.

By the time of the vote in October 2023, the proposal's legal risks had become a focal point for opponents of the Voice. The very frst reason put forward for voting ‘no’ to the proposal that was published in the ofcial referendum pamphlet distributed to almost 16 million voters was ‘This Voice is legally risky’. The pamphlet went on to say:

This book has examined Hindi film songs through a lens that acknowledges the central role of sentimentality and melodrama in advancing the narrative and intentions of films marked primarily by the themes of love, death and desire. Songs have an affective dimension insofar as they have an emotional impact on the spectator. In addition, they have a narrative function as they advance the plot/story. In exploring these two dimensions, this book has foregrounded the roles of auteurs, playback singers, lyricists and composers. The registers, moods, and in some cases ragas, of songs have been examined over a broad corpus of examples to identify their impact on the spectator, their role in the narrative of the film and their thematization in the films with reference to specific emotional states. In so doing, the book has theorized sentimentality and melodrama in the context of Hindi film songs to more fully identify the nature of sentimentality and to articulate the way songs play a role in the melodramatic form.

The book has been primarily concerned with songs from what I have called the Golden Age of Hindi (Bollywood) Cinema [1951–1963] – a period in Hindi film history when emotion, sentiments, and melodrama were regularly combined to create “affective intensities”. Collectively – and I wish to underline “collectively” – the Golden Age as read in this book represents the finest lyrics of Hindi/Bollywood cinema. In their poetic intensity, emotional resonance, cultural scope, and contextual semantics, they remain unparalleled. This must be said with absolute clarity and without reserve. Capturing the emotions embedded in them may in many ways be culture-specific based on experience (such as a personal trauma associated with Indian partition) or on an intertextual understanding of the film and its cinematic/musical elements.

Imagining a Citizens’ Review for the Voice referendum, generated by ChatGPT-4. Among the ‘might have beens’ accompanying the Voice referendum was a proposal for holding and publicising a Citizens’ Review of the arguments (and supporting claims) for and against the proposal. A group of experts presented this proposal to the federal government. Attempts were also made to fnd philanthropic funding for the process, which had been independently costed. But the proposal was not taken up. In this chapter we explain what a Citizens’ Review involves, why it would have been a good idea to implement one before the Voice referendum, who proposed it and why it failed to secure support and fnance from the federal government. While we hope this chapter will be useful, frstly, as a post-mortem, our further aspiration is that it will guide future Australian federal governments seeking to navigate the challenging politics of constitutional reform.

What Is Citizens’ Review?

The idea of Citizens’ Review was pioneered in the US state of Oregon, where it is known as Citizens’ Initiative Review. The ‘Initiative’ in Oregon is a referendum in which the citizenry can vote on everything from cutting taxes to closing down a nuclear power station to legalising marijuana. Any measure passed in the referendum becomes law. As practised in Oregon and other US states, a panel of around 25 lay citizens is selected through stratifed random sampling, which is a recruitment method used to make sure that a roughly representative slice of the electorate in both demographic and attitudinal terms is convened. The panel meets over four to fve days in order to address one referendum measure. The panel members hear from and can question relevant experts and advocates of both Yes and No votes on the measure in question before deliberating with each other.

By conducting a thorough examination of empirical data, this chapter integrates the quantitative and qualitative findings, establishing links between psychological theories and observed results. This chapter serves as a connection between theoretical insights and practical findings, emphasizing essential points for stakeholders and setting the stage for the final reflection on the broader implications of fitness technology.

Introduction to Key Findings

The chapter offers a thorough examination of the research results, integrating both quantitative and qualitative data to offer a comprehensive insight into the impact of fitness technology on psychological well-being (Codina et al., 2024). As discussed in earlier sections, fitness technology has a twofold influence: it can inspire individuals and enhance their physical self-perception, yet it also brings about the potential for social comparison and heightened social physique anxiety (Zartaloudi et al., 2023). The discoveries detailed in this chapter emphasize the intricate nature of the topic, elucidating the various ways in which different aspects of fitness technology impact positive and negative results. Drawing from Social Comparison Theory (Festinger, 1954; Crusius et al., 2022), Self-Determination Theory (Ryan & Deci, 2020), and the Hierarchical Model of Physical Self-Concept (Marsh, 1996), this book interprets these findings within broader psychological frameworks to illuminate their implications for users, fitness professionals, and developers alike.

As mentioned at the beginning of the previous chapter, it was the Austrian naturalist Johann Natterer who collected Munduruku feathers during a scientific expedition that lasted almost 18 years. The journey began on 9 April 1817, when two Austrian frigates, the Austria and the Augusta, set sail from Trieste. They arrived in Rio de Janeiro between July and November 1817, crossing the Mediterranean, the Straits of Gibraltar and the Madeira Islands. The expedition, sponsored by Emperor Francis I and organised by Prince Metternich, the Austrian Minister of Foreign Affairs, was made up of several members, each specialised in a different field of natural history or related to it: Johann Cristoph Mikan, physician and botanist; Johann Emmanuel Pohl, physician and mineralogist; Johann Natterer, zoologist and assistant to the Royal and Imperial Natural History Cabinet; Heinrich Wilhelm Schott, gardener; Dominik Sochor, hunter; Thomas Ender, landscape painter; and Johann Burchberger, botanist. They were joined by two German naturalists, Johann Baptist Ritter von Spix and Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius, who had been commissioned by the King of Bavaria to collect information and natural and ethnographic material (Schreibers 1969). The first to arrive fuelled expectations and imaginations of what the expedition would find in Brazil, which until a few years earlier had only been accessible to the Portuguese. In a letter dated 15 August 1817, Dr. Mikan wrote

The 2016 meeting of First Nations leaders convened by the Referendum Council in the design of the Regional Dialogues. Pat Turner AM, CEO of the National Aboriginal Community Controlled Health Organisation (NACCHO) and the Convenor of the Coalition of Peaks, has the microphone. Photographer: Jimmy Widders Hunt.

The call for a constitutionally enshrined Voice in the Uluru Statement from the Heart, issued in May 2017, was a refocus on decades, indeed over a century, of advocacy by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people for political voice. In the meantime, calls for sovereignty, treaty and rights had emerged. But there had been little solid work to demonstrate the need for these modern-day mantras for First Nations communities.

The lack of authoritative and recognised political voice in Australia's democratic system, however, has been consistently identifed by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people as what we need. It has also been consistently identifed in the countless reviews as necessary to address the many socioeconomic and cultural challenges facing Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people and our communities. National truth-telling processes, such as the Bringing Them Home Report, have laid, belittled, narrowed and never acted upon, without political representation to see their recommendations implemented.