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38637 results in Cambridge Textbooks

Page 1228 of 1932

  • 15 - Kinematics of Rigid Bodies

  • Arshad Noor Siddiquee, Zahid A. Khan, Pankul Goel
  • Book:
    Engineering Mechanics
    Published online:
    04 April 2019
    Print publication:
    16 March 2018, pp 661-707

  • Summary

    Introduction

    So far, the motion of particles has been analyzed under kinematics and kinetics. Earlier, the rectilinear and curvilinear motion of a particle was studied in the chapter 10 and 11, respectively, where a body was idealized as a particle and does not have any rotational motion. However, in some cases we cannot make such assumptions where a body consists considerable rotary motion. In this chapter, we will analyse motion of rigid bodies having rotary and general plane motion for parameters like displacement, time, velocity and acceleration without cause of motion (force).

    Rotational Motion

    In this motion all the particles of a rigid body continuously rotate about a fixed axis. Here all the particles have parallel path in the plane of rotation. The examples are moving fan, pump, rotating shaft in a lathe machine and drilling operation, etc.

    Angular Displacement, Angular Velocity and Angular Acceleration

    Angular displacement is the displacement of a body on the plane of rotation about a fixed axis. It is a vector quantity and expressed in radians. For example, consider a link rotates clockwise about a fixed axis as shown in Fig. 15.1. If the link turns by angle θ during time t from OX-axis, the angular displacement of all particles on the link will be θ in clockwise direction. In one revolution the angular displacement of link will be equal to 2π radians.

    Angular Velocity is the rate by which angular displacement varies with respect to time. It is represented by ω. If a rotating body turns by angle dθ in time dt then angular velocity will be given by

    It is a vector quantity. The unit of angular velocity is rad/sec, however in engineering devices; it is expressed in r.p.m. (revolutions per minute).

    If the angular velocity is expressed in r.p.m. then it can be converted into rad/sec as follows:

    Consider a shaft rotating with N r.p.m.

    Then number of revolutions per second will be

    The angular displacement in one revolution of shaft will be 2π radians

    Thus total angular displacement per second will be

    Angular Acceleration is the rate at which angular velocity varies with respect to time. It is represented by α.

  • 10 - Kinematics: Rectilinear Motion of Particles

  • Arshad Noor Siddiquee, Zahid A. Khan, Pankul Goel
  • Book:
    Engineering Mechanics
    Published online:
    04 April 2019
    Print publication:
    16 March 2018, pp 498-528

  • Summary

    Introduction

    Previous chapters were concerned with the forces and reactions under which a body was held stationary; that branch of mechanics is called Statics. However, if the forces remained unbalanced, the body moves; this branch of mechanics is called Dynamics. It is further divided into two branches:

  • a. Kinematics that deals with the analysis of displacement, time, velocity and acceleration of a motion without reason of motion i.e., forces.

  • b. Kinetics that deals with the analysis of displacement, time, velocity, acceleration of a motion along with the forces causing motion. It also deals with the mass of the body and relationships between the forces acting on a body.

    • A body under motion can be idealized as a particle which is concentrated about its centre of gravity. It is assumed that a particle does not have rotational movement. However, if rotational movement of the body cannot be neglected then such body cannot be treated as particle.

    Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration

    Displacement is the minimum distance or smallest route travelled by a body from a starting point to the destination point along a straight line. It is a vector quantity as it is concerned with both magnitude and direction of motion.

    Consider a particle moves from origin point A to destination point B via different paths A-1-2-B, A-B and A-3-4-B as shown in Fig. 10.1. Here the smallest route A-B travelled along a straight line will be displacement. However the other route traversed by the body will be called distance which depends upon magnitude only and called a scalar quantity. Being vector quantity, the displacement can have positive or negative value but distance always has a positive quantity.

    Velocity of a body is described as the rate of change of displacement with respect to time. Velocity can be average velocity, instantaneous velocity and uniform velocity depending upon the variation of displacement and time.

    Average velocity: In the previous example if body travels displacement Δs during time interval Δt via path A-B then the average velocity is given by

    Instantaneous velocity: At a particular instant, the velocity of a body is known as Instantaneous velocity.

  • 11 - Kinematics: Curvilinear Motion of Particles

  • Arshad Noor Siddiquee, Zahid A. Khan, Pankul Goel
  • Book:
    Engineering Mechanics
    Published online:
    04 April 2019
    Print publication:
    16 March 2018, pp 529-559

  • Summary

    Introduction

    When the motion of a body takes place along a curved path, it is called curvilinear motion. The curvilinear motion is known as a two-dimensional motion as it takes place in the X–Y plane. The basic difference between rectilinear and curvilinear motion is that in a rectilinear motion, all particles of a body move parallel to each other along a straight line but in a curvilinear motion all particles move parallel to each other along a curved path in a common plane. Some common examples of curvilinear motion are as follows:

  • a. A vehicle passing over a speed breaker.

  • b. Turning of a vehicle along a curved path.

  • c. Motion of a ball during lofted six in cricket.

  • d. Motion of missile fired from a fighter plane.

  • e. Oscillatory motion of a pendulum.

    • Rectangular Coordinates

    This system is used to analyse the curvilinear motion of a particle moving in X–Y plane. Here the velocity and acceleration are resolved in two perpendicular components along X and Y axis. The resultant value of velocity and acceleration can be determined by using vector approach or combining its components as discussed below:

    Velocity: Consider a ball during lofted six, it consists two types of motions, one rotary motion and another curvilinear motion. Here the rotary motion is neglected and assumed that all particles of ball will travel with same displacement, velocity and acceleration. Consider a displacement-time graph where a particle is moving along a curved path in X–Y plane. Let at any instant t, particle has position A. If particle moves from point A to B by displacement Δs during time interval Δt as shown in Fig. 11.1.

    We know that the instantaneous velocity is given by

    The above equation provides instantaneous velocity by using vector approach. It can also obtained from its components,

    Acceleration: Consider velocity–time graph where a particle is moving along a curved path in the X–Y plane. Let at any instant t, particle has velocity v. During motion from point A to B, if velocity of particle increases by Δv in time interval Δt as shown in Fig. 11.2.

  • Chapter 3 - P-N Junction and P-N Junction Diode

  • Chinmoy Saha, Arindam Halder, Debarati Ganguly
  • Book:
    Basic Electronics
    Published online:
    03 June 2025
    Print publication:
    01 March 2018, pp 74-210

  • Summary

    3.1 P-N JUNCTION

    All modern semiconductor devices and integrated circuits (IC), which are the backbone of modern day electronics, contain at least one junction between p-type and n-type semiconductor, commonly known as p-n junction. This p-n junction is the most fundamental semiconductor device as all other devices like various types of transistors (Bipolar Junction Transistor, Field Effect Transistor, Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor, etc.) require p-n junctions of various configurations, which will be discussed in subsequent chapters. Various analog and digital operations and performance like rectification, amplification, switching, logic operations require this fundamental semiconductor device. In this chapter, we will discuss various issues related to the p-n junction followed by application of such junction diodes, called p-n junction diodes, for various operations.

    In chapter 2, we have been familiar with different types of semiconductors, classified in different aspects. We recall p- and n-type semiconductor, which are realized by doping an intrinsic semiconductor with different type of impurities to obtain large number of free carriers in the form of holes in p-type semiconductor and electrons in n-type semiconductor, respectively. However, these n-type and p-type semiconductors having electrons and holes in abundance are electrically neutral, as they are neutralized by the impurity ions which have created them. To be more specific, electrons are neutralized by associated donor ions, each of which has equal (opposite in sign) amount of charge as that of each electron, and holes are neutralized by acceptors ions, each of which has equal (opposite in sign) amount of charge as that of a hole, ensuring a charge neutrality. This is clearly shown in Figure 3.1. However, if we consider a semiconductor whose two sides are differently doped with acceptor and donor impurities, their effect is not like two isolated pieces of p- and n- type semiconductor due to the transport phenomena of the mobile charge carriers. Such a device is known as p-n junction and needs to be discussed in detail. It is the most fundamental semiconductor device and is the backbone of modern day electronics.

  • 7 - Dinophyta

  • from Part IV - Evolution of One Membrane of Chloroplast Endoplasmic Reticulum
  • Robert Edward Lee, Colorado State University
  • Book:
    Phycology
    Published online:
    06 August 2018
    Print publication:
    01 March 2018, pp 250-297

  • Summary

    These organisms are important members of the plankton in both fresh and marine waters, although a much greater variety of forms is found in marine members. Generally the Dinophyceae are less important in the colder polar waters than in warmer waters. The highly elaborate Dinophysales (Fig. 7.47(d), (e)) are essentially a tropical group.

    A typical motile dinoflagellate (Figs. 7.1, 7.2) consists of an epicone and hypocone divided by the transverse girdle or cingulum. The epicone and hypocone are normally divided into a number of thecal plates, the exact number and arrangement of which are characteristic of the particular genus (Figs. 7.1, 7.3, 7.20(b), 7.24(b)). There is a longitudinal sulcus running perpendicular to the girdle. The longitudinal and transverse flagella emerge through the thecal plates in the area where the girdle and sulcus meet. The longitudinal flagellum projects out from the cell, whereas the transverse flagellum is wave-like and is closely appressed to the girdle. The cells can be photosynthetic or colorless and heterotrophic. Photosynthetic organisms have chloroplasts surrounded by one membrane of chloroplast E.R., which is not continuous with the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope. Chlorophylls a and c 2 are present in the chloroplasts, with peridinin and neoperidinin being the main carotenoids. About half the Dinophyceae that have been examined by electron microscopy have pyrenoids in the chloroplasts (Dodge and Crawford, 1970). The storage product is starch, similar to the starch of higher plants (Vogel and Meeuse, 1968), which is found in the cytoplasm. An eyespot may be present. The nucleus has permanently condensed chromosomes and is called a dinokaryotic or mesokaryotic nucleus.

    Cell Structure

    Theca

    The thecal structure of motile Dinophyceae consists of an outer plasmalemma beneath which lies a single layer of flattened vesicles (Figs. 7.2, 7.3(c), 7.5) (Dodge and Crawford, 1970 ; Sekida et al., 2004). These vesicles, which normally contain cellulosic plates, give the theca its characteristic structure. The actual form and arrangement of the thecal plates varies from none in the phagotrophic Oxyrrhis marina, to very thick plates with flanges at the edges in Ceratium (Figs. 7.11, 7.48, 7.49) and Peridinium spp. (Figs. 7.2, 7.10).

  • 15 - Environmental Information and Technology Transfer

  • from Part III - Techniques For Implementing International Principles And Rules
  • Philippe Sands, University College London, Jacqueline Peel, University of Melbourne
  • With Adriana Fabra, Universitat de Barcelona, Ruth MacKenzie, University of Westminster
  • Book:
    Principles of International Environmental Law
    Published online:
    07 August 2018
    Print publication:
    01 March 2018, pp 682-734

  • Summary

    INTRODUCTION

    Improving the dissemination of scientific and technological knowledge, whether in the form of information on the environment or technical know-how on the best ways to deal with environmental problems, is a well-established objective of international environmental law. Information, including scientific expertise, is widely recognised as a prerequisite to effective national and international environmental management, protection and cooperation. The availability of, and access to, information allows preventative and mitigation measures to be taken, ensures the participation of citizens in national decision-making processes, and can influence individual, consumer and corporate behaviour. Information also allows the international community to determine whether states are complying with their legal obligations. Technical assistance, provided especially to developing countries, and wider dissemination of state-of-the-art technologies, including ‘clean technologies’, are likewise seen as central to international environmental law implementation efforts.

    This chapter considers international rules regarding the dissemination of environmental information and clean technologies. The period since the first edition of this book has seen many significant developments in both areas, reflecting the increasing emphasis on effective implementation of international environmental obligations. In the field of environmental information these include the 1998 Aarhus Convention, which establishes a Europe-wide regime for access to environmental information, public participation, and access to justice in environmental cases; the Aarhus Convention's 2003 Protocol on Pollutant Release and Transfer Registers; and several other agreements such as the 1998 Chemicals Convention, the 2000 Biosafety Protocol, the 2001 POPs Convention, the 2010 Nagoya Protocol and the 2015 Paris Agreement, which include prominent commitments to ensuring appropriate flows of information and the dissemination of scientific information and expertise. Arbitral tribunals, including those in the trade field, have also demonstrated an increasing acceptance of the importance of transparency and the public availability of information, with a trend to greater transparency for proceedings concerning international environmental matters.

    Over the same period, provisions regarding technical assistance and technology transfer have also become a standard feature of international environmental agreements, with growing acceptance of the linkage – first articulated in treaties such as the 1992 Biodiversity and Climate Change Conventions – between the implementation by developing country parties of their treaty commitments and the transfer of technology and know-how from developed country parties in fulfilment of their treaty obligations.

Page 1228 of 1932