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38638 results in Cambridge Textbooks

Page 1231 of 1932

  • Part III - Evolution of the Chloroplast

  • Robert Edward Lee, Colorado State University
  • Book:
    Phycology
    Published online:
    06 August 2018
    Print publication:
    01 March 2018, pp 77-79

  • Summary

    The Rhodophyta (red algae) and Chlorophyta (green algae) form a natural group of algae in that they have chloroplasts surrounded by only the two membranes of the chloroplast envelope. The endosymbiotic theory of chloroplast evolution, first proposed by Mereschkowsky in 1905, is the one most widely accepted for the evolution of the chloroplast (Fig. III.1). According to this theory, a cyanobacterium was taken up by a phagocytic organism into a food vesicle. Normally the cyanobacterium would be digested by the flagellate, but by chance a mutation occurred, with the flagellate being unable to digest the cyanobacterium. This was probably a beneficial mutation because the cyanobacterium, by virtue of its lack of feedback inhibition, secreted considerable amounts of metabolites to the host flagellate. The flagellate in turn gave the cyanobacterium a protected environment, and the composite organism was probably able to live in an ecological niche where there were no photosynthetic organisms (i.e., a slightly acid body of water where free-living cyanobacteria do not grow; see Chapter 2). Pascher (1914) coined terms for this association; he called the endosymbiotic cyanobacteria cyanelles; the host, a cyanome; and the association between the two, a syncyanosis. In the original syncyanosis, the cyanelle had a wall around it. Because the wall slowed the transfer of compounds from the cyanelle to the host and vice versa, any mutation that resulted in a loss of wall would have been beneficial and selected for in evolution. As evolution progressed, these two membranes became the chloroplast envelope, the cyanome cytoplasm took over the formation of the storage product and the polyhedral bodies containing ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase differentiated into the pyrenoid.

    Most of the genes from the endosymbiotic cyanobacterium were transferred to the host nucleus while a small number of these genes were maintained in the resulting plastid and gave rise to the plastid genome with its associated proteinsynthesizing system. The products of many of the cyanobacterial genes transferred to the nucleus were then retargeted to the plastid to keep it functional. Approximately 3000 nuclear genes in plants encode plastid proteins, whereas the chloroplast genome contains between 100 and 120 genes. The nucleus is also capable of sensing the state of the chloroplast and to react to maintain chloroplast homeostasis.

  • 12 - Integrated Circuits

  • Chinmoy Saha, Arindam Halder, Debarati Ganguly
  • Book:
    Basic Electronics
    Published online:
    03 June 2025
    Print publication:
    01 March 2018, pp 610-619

  • Summary

    INTRODUCTION

    In electronics, an integrated circuit (also known as IC, microcircuit, microchip, silicon chip or chip) is a miniaturized electronic circuit (consisting mainly of semiconductor devices, as well as passive components) that is manufactured on the surface of a thin substrate of semiconductor material. A hybrid Integrated Circuit is a miniaturized electronic circuit constructed of individual semiconductor devices, as well as passive components, bonded to a substrate or circuit board. Integrated circuits are used in almost all electronic equipment and have revolutionized the world of electronics.

    To a large extent, the demand for miniaturization was driven by the demands of the American Space Program. For some time, people had been thinking that it would be a good idea to be able to fabricate an entire circuit on a single piece of semiconductor. The first public discussion of this idea is credited to a British radar expert, Geoffrey William Arnold Dummer (1909–2002), in a paper presented in 1952. Jack Kilby's first prototype was a phase-shift oscillator comprising of five components on a piece of germanium, half an inch long and thinner than a toothpick. Although manufacturing techniques subsequently took different paths from those used by Kilby, yet he is considered as the pioneer in the area of IC fabrication.

    ICs are polarized and every pin is unique in terms of both location and function. Most ICs use either a notch or a dot to indicate the pin numbers and its counting sequence. This is depicted in Figure 12.1.

    IC: ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

    The main advantages of ICs over those made by interconnecting discrete components are as follows:

  • Extremely small size, i.e. thousands times smaller than discrete circuits. It is because of fabrication of various circuit elements on a single chip of semiconductor material.

  • Very small weight owing to miniaturized circuit.

  • Very low cost because of simultaneous production of hundreds of similar circuits on a small semiconductor wafer. Owing to mass production, IC costs as much as an individual transistor.

  • More reliable because of elimination of soldered joints and need for fewer interconnections.

  • Lower power consumption because of their smaller size.

  • Easy replacement as it is more economical to replace them than to repair them.

  • Increased operating speed because of absence of parasitic capacitance effect.

  • Introduction: So What Is Transnational Management?

  • Christopher A. Bartlett, Harvard University, Massachusetts, Paul W. Beamish, University of Western Ontario
  • Book:
    Transnational Management
    Published online:
    20 December 2018
    Print publication:
    01 March 2018, pp 1-8

  • Summary

    Few managers operating in today's international business environment would dispute that this is an extremely exciting time to be engaged in almost any aspect of cross-border management. Fast-changing global developments have created big challenges that appear unusually complex, but at the same time they have opened up new opportunities that seem almost limitless.

    Around the world, managers are asking questions like the following: How does the unraveling of the long anticipated Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) trade agreement affect our business? What can we do to manage the political disruption and economic dislocation following Brexit? How can we take advantage of the continued rise in Asian markets? How should we deal with the threat of new competitors emerging from developing countries? Can we exploit the impending boom in big data to track and exploit new global trends? How might we harness fast-growing social networks to leverage our cross-border management connections and organizational processes?

    Before we launch into these and the other such rich and engaging discussions, perhaps we should step back for a moment to review the broad territory we will be exploring on our voyage of discovery. A good place to start might be with the title of this book. What exactly does Transnational Management mean?

    Transnational: What Does That Imply?

    The first word on the cover of this book may not be familiar to some. While the terms “multinational,” “international,” and “global” are in widespread general use, it may not be entirely clear to you why we chose to use the less familiar description “transnational” in the title of this book.

    Good question. And we promise to respond to it by the end of Chapter 1. By the end of that opening chapter it should be clear to you that we use those four terms quite specifically. Furthermore, you will find that our distinction between “multinational,” “international,” “global,” and “transnational” will become a strong theme that runs through this book in our discussion of strategy, organization, and management.

    But more of that later. For the purpose of this introduction, let's just recognize that the “transnational” qualifier indicates that our focus will be on the management challenges that face companies whose operations extend across national boundaries.

  • 17 - Human Rights and International Humanitarian Law

  • from Part IV - Linkage Of International Environmental Law And Other Areas Of International Law
  • Philippe Sands, University College London, Jacqueline Peel, University of Melbourne
  • With Adriana Fabra, Universitat de Barcelona, Ruth MacKenzie, University of Westminster
  • Book:
    Principles of International Environmental Law
    Published online:
    07 August 2018
    Print publication:
    01 March 2018, pp 811-840

  • Summary

    INTRODUCTION

    With the advent of sustainable development as a key principle of international law, no area of international law operates in ‘clinical isolation’ from any other. This is particularly the case for international environmental law as issues of environmental protection are strongly interconnected with questions around social and economic development. This chapter considers the interrelationship of the environment with international human rights law and the laws governing war and armed conflict (international humanitarian law). The linkage of the environment with human rights and international humanitarian law has been an issue for international environmental law since the earliest stages of its development in the 1960s and 1970s, but has achieved greater prominence with increasing recognition of the close relationship between environmental protection and the realisation of human rights and the achievement of human security, particularly in the face of climate change threats. Acknowledging these trends, the 2015 Paris Agreement included – for the first time in a climate treaty – language on human rights and the concept of ‘climate justice’.

    The development of international human rights and international humanitarian law pre-dates international environmental law and provides a rich source of comparative experience. International environmental law equally raises many issues that will be familiar to human rights and international humanitarian lawyers. In the environmental context, questions related to minimum international standards and the role of individuals and other non-governmental organisations in the international legal process have raised analogous issues to those arising in international human rights and humanitarian law. The international legal issues are closely related, as is now reflected in the activities of human rights bodies. As UNCED highlighted, a key question at the interface of human rights and humanitarian law with the environment concerns the extent to which international environmental law should adopt an anthropocentric approach, based on the view that environmental protection is primarily justified as a means of protecting humans, rather than as an end in itself. The Rio Declaration endorses an anthropocentric approach, with Principle 1 stating that: ‘Human beings are at the centre of concerns for sustainable development. They are entitled to a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature.’ Legal developments in other fora and contexts, however, reflect a greater environmental consciousness and suggest that the protection of the environment is often recognised on its own terms, and not simply a means of protecting humans.

  • Part V - Evolution of Two Membranes of Chloroplast Endoplasmic Reticulum and the Chlorarachniophyta

  • Robert Edward Lee, Colorado State University
  • Book:
    Phycology
    Published online:
    06 August 2018
    Print publication:
    01 March 2018, pp 303-308

  • Summary

    Algae with two membranes of chloroplast endoplasmic reticulum (chloroplast E.R.) have the inner membrane of chloroplast E.R. surrounding the chloroplast envelope. The outer membrane of chloroplast E.R. is continuous with the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope and has ribosomes on the outer surface (Fig. V.1).

    The algae with two membranes of chloroplast E.R. evolved by a secondary endosymbiosis (Fig. V.1) (Lee, 1977 ; Keeling, 2013) when a phagocytic protozoan took up a eukaryotic photosynthetic alga into a food vesicle. Instead of being phagocytosed by the protozoan, the photosynthetic alga became established as an endosymbiont within the food vesicle of the protozoan. The endosymbiotic photosynthetic alga benefited from the acidic environment in the food vesicle that kept much of the inorganic carbon in the form of carbon dioxide, the form needed by ribulose bisphosphate/carboxylase for carbon fixation (see Part IV for further explanation). The host benefited by receiving some of the photosynthate from the endosymbiotic alga. The food vesicle membrane eventually fused with the endoplasmic reticulum of the host protozoan, resulting in ribosomes on the outer surface of this membrane, which became the outer membrane of the chloroplast E.R. Through evolution, ATP production and other functions of the endosymbiont's mitochondrion were taken over by the mitochondria of the protozoan host, and the mitochondria of the endosymbiont were lost. The resulting cytology is characteristic of the extant algae in the Chlorarachniophyta and Cryptophyta, which have a nucleomorph representing the degraded endosymbiotic nucleus, as well as storage product produced in what remains of the endosymbiont cytoplasm.

    The type of chloroplast E.R. that exists in the Heterokontophyta and the Prymnesiophyta resulted from further reduction. The nucleomorph was completely lost and storage product formation was taken over by the host. The resulting cell had two membranes of chloroplast envelope surrounding the chloroplast. Outside of this was the inner membrane of chloroplast E.R. that was the remains of the plasma membrane of the endosymbiont. Outside of this was the outer membrane of chloroplast E.R. which was the remains of the food vesicle membrane of the host. Most of the protein synthesis of the endosymbiont was taken over by the nucleus of the host (Martin, 2010).

  • 5 - Compliance: Implementation, Enforcement, Dispute Settlement

  • from Part I - The Legal And Institutional Framework
  • Philippe Sands, University College London, Jacqueline Peel, University of Melbourne
  • With Adriana Fabra, Universitat de Barcelona, Ruth MacKenzie, University of Westminster
  • Book:
    Principles of International Environmental Law
    Published online:
    07 August 2018
    Print publication:
    01 March 2018, pp 144-194

  • Summary

    INTRODUCTION

    Ensuring compliance by members of the international community with their international environmental obligations continues to be a matter of serious concern. This is reflected in the attention the issue received at UNCED, in the negotiation and implementation of environmental agreements, and in the growing number of environmental disputes brought before international judicial bodies. The relevance of environmental concerns to international peace and security was affirmed by the UN Security Council in January 1992, when its members declared that ‘nonmilitary sources of instability in the … ecological fields have become threats to international peace and security’. The response to those concerns has included the development of existing mechanisms for implementation, enforcement and dispute settlement (such as the specialised rules for arbitrating environmental disputes promulgated by the Permanent Court of Arbitration in 2001), as well as novel approaches such as the non-compliance mechanisms established under a number of environmental agreements, and the role given to the UN Compensation Commission over environmental claims.

    Of the reasons proffered for renewed efforts, at least three are especially relevant. First, it is apparent that states are taking on ever more international environmental commitments, of increasing stringency. Second, the growing demands on access to finite natural resources, such as freshwater and fish, provide fertile conditions for conflicts over the use of natural resources. And, third, as international environmental obligations increasingly intersect with economic interests, states that do not comply with their environmental obligations are perceived to gain unfair competitive advantage from non-compliance. Non-compliance is seen to be important because it limits the effectiveness of legal commitments, undermines the international legal process, and can lead to conflict and instability in the international order. It occurs for different reasons, and it is widely recognised that the underlying causes require further attention so that existing and new international legal obligations are crafted to ensure their effective implementation. At UNCED, attention was focused on mechanisms to prevent disputes and to resolve them peacefully when they arise. Subsequent efforts have reflected a desire to address enforcement and dispute settlement in a non-contentious and non-adversarial manner.

  • 11 - Heterokontophyta, Synurophyceae

  • from Part V - Evolution of Two Membranes of Chloroplast Endoplasmic Reticulum and the Chlorarachniophyta
  • Robert Edward Lee, Colorado State University
  • Book:
    Phycology
    Published online:
    06 August 2018
    Print publication:
    01 March 2018, pp 334-338

  • Summary

    The Synurophyceae are closely related to the Chrysophyceae (Ariztia et al., 1991). The Synurophyceae differ, however, from the Chrysophyceae in the following: the Synurophyceae have chlorophylls a and c 1 (Andersen and Mulkey, 1983), the flagella are inserted into the cell approximately parallel to one another (Fig. 11.1), there is a photoreceptor near the base of each flagellum, there is no eyespot, and the contractile vacuole is in the posterior portion of the cell (Lavau et al., 1997 ; Andersen et al., 1999). Chloroplast endoplasmic reticulum is present in a few species, but absent in most. The cells usually are covered by bilaterally symmetrical scales.

    In the Synurophyceae, scales composed of silica commonly occur outside the cell (Figs. 11.1, 11.2, 11.3). The scales are bilaterally symmetrical and are formed in a silica deposition vesicle. The membrane of the silica deposition vesicle (the silicalemma) controls the shape of the scale along with proteins and glycoproteins that adhere the developing scale to the silicalemma (Schultz et al., 2001). The presence of germanium in the medium results in inhibition of scale formation (Klaveness and Guillard, 1975). The scales are carried in the scale vesicle to the plasma membrane where the plasma membrane and the scale vesicle fuse, releasing the scales outside the cell (Beech et al., 1990). The scales are held next to the cell in an organic envelope (Ludwig et al., 1996), which is either hyaline or yellow-brown, the latter appearance being due to the impregnation of iron salts. The scales of the Synurophyceae are commonly composed of a number of parts, such as the dome, shield, and bristle of Mallomonas (Lavau and Wetherbee, 1994) (Figs. 11.2, 11.3(c), (d)). The scales of the Synurophyceae are overlapped precisely so that the anterior end of one scale overlaps the right margin of the scale to its left (Leadbeater, 1990). The scales are cemented together to form a scale case by the organic envelope. This precise arrangement of scales differs from the loosely arranged scales of the Chrysophyceae.

    Analysis of lake sediments often reveals the presence of the silicified scales of the Synurophyceae as well as the silicified frustules of diatoms (Smol et al., 1984 ; Dixit et al., 1999).

  • 10 - Heterokontophyta, Chrysophyceae

  • from Part V - Evolution of Two Membranes of Chloroplast Endoplasmic Reticulum and the Chlorarachniophyta
  • Robert Edward Lee, Colorado State University
  • Book:
    Phycology
    Published online:
    06 August 2018
    Print publication:
    01 March 2018, pp 318-333

  • Summary

    The algae in the Heterokontophyta usually have cells with an anterior tinsel and posterior whiplash flagellum (Fig. 10.1). The plastids contain chlorophylls a and c along with fucoxanthin. The storage product is usually chrysolaminarin in cytoplasmic vesicles.

    Based on molecular evidence (Horn et al., 2007 ; Kai et al., 2008 ; Schmidt et al., 2012 ; Yang et al., 2012), the algae in the Heterokontophyta can be divided into three clades.

    Clade 1. Chrysophyceae, Synurophyceae, Eustigmatophyceae, Pinguiophyceae, Synchromophyceae.

    Clade 2. Bacillariophyceae, Bolidophyceae, Dictyochophyceae, Pelagophyceae.

    Clade 3. Phaeophyceae, Raphidophyceae, Xanthophyceae, Phaeothamniophyceae, Chrysomerophyceae, Schizocladiophyceae, Aurearenophyceae.

    Since some of these classes have only a few representatives, and because this is a basic textbook, I have chosen not dealt with the algae in the Synchromophyceae, Chrysomerophyceae, Schizocladiophyceae, and Aurearenophyceae. The following classes are covered here (Andersen, 2004):

    Chrysophyceae (golden-brown algae) (Chapter 10)

    Synurophyceae (Chapter 11)

    Eustigmatophyceae (Chapter 12)

    Pinguiophyceae (Chapter 13)

    Dictyochophyceae (silicoflagellates) (Chapter 14)

    Pelagophyceae (Chapter 15)

    Bolidophyceae (Chapter 16)

    Bacillariophyceae (diatoms) (Chapter 17)

    Raphidophyceae (chloromonads) (Chapter 18)

    Xanthophyceae (yellow-green algae) (Chapter 19)

    Phaeothamniophyceae (Chapter 20)

    Phaeophyceae (brown algae) (Chapter 21).

    CHRYSOPHYCEAE

    The Chrysophyceae are distinguished chemically by having chlorophylls a, c 1, and c 2 (Andersen and Mulkey, 1983) and structurally by two flagella inserted into the cell perpendicular to each other, one photoreceptor on the short flagellum that is usually shaded by an eyespot in the anterior portion of the chloroplast, contractile vacuoles in the anterior portion of the cell, chloroplast endoplasmic reticulum, and radially or biradially symmetrical silica scales (if they are present). The storage product is chrysolaminarin. Many members of the class produce statospores enclosed in a silicified wall with a terminal pore. The Chrysophyceae/Synurophyceae probably originated about 268 Ma (million years ago) (Brown, 2010).

    Most of the species in the Chrysophyceae are freshwater species, and occur in soft waters (low in calcium). Many of the freshwater species are in the plankton of lakes where they are present in abundance. The coccoid and filamentous genera are found mostly in cold springs and brooks, where they occur as gelatinous or crustous growths on stones and woodwork.

  • 18 - International Economic Law: Trade, Investment and Intellectual Property

  • from Part IV - Linkage Of International Environmental Law And Other Areas Of International Law
  • Philippe Sands, University College London, Jacqueline Peel, University of Melbourne
  • With Adriana Fabra, Universitat de Barcelona, Ruth MacKenzie, University of Westminster
  • Book:
    Principles of International Environmental Law
    Published online:
    07 August 2018
    Print publication:
    01 March 2018, pp 841-929

  • Summary

    INTRODUCTION

    The integration of economic and environmental aspects of international law has been an important aspect of international environmental law particularly since UNCED. Such integration was prompted in part by considerations of the relationship between differing environmental standards and economic competitiveness. Principle 4 of the Rio Declaration reflects this interdependence, providing that ‘in order to achieve sustainable development environmental protection shall constitute an integral part of the development process and cannot be considered in isolation from it’. The theme of integration was central to the preparations for UNCED. Agenda 21 recognised that the international economy should provide a ‘supportive international climate for achieving environment and development goals’, and identified the following as objectives for the international community:

  • • making trade and the environment mutually supportive;

  • • encouraging macroeconomic policies conducive to environment and development; and

  • • providing adequate financial resources to developing countries and dealing with international debt.

    • This chapter considers the international legal aspects of these issues. It is divided into three sections. The first discusses the relationship between international trade and environmental protection, and the application of international rules of competition law to environmental issues. The second examines the relationship between protection of the environment and rules of international law for the promotion of foreign investments found in investment treaties – bilateral and multilateral – which seek to protect foreign investments against certain governmental acts, in particular, expropriation and unfair treatment. The final section concerns intellectual property rights and the extent to which they govern the development of technologies which may be considered harmful to the environment. It also canvasses the intersection between intellectual property rights and indigenous traditional knowledge in the context of biodiversity conservation.

    One of the consequences of an emphasis on greater integration of economics and the environment has been to bring together two very different groups of international legal practitioners who have traditionally had very little to do with one another. International economic law in the past had been seen as a separate, self-contained field, dominated by the principles and ideology of free trade and economic development. Over time, environmentalists and others have challenged the dominance of such ideals and particularly their utility to achieve other international goals such as environmental protection.

  • Chapter 15 - Introduction to Digital Logic Circuits

  • Chinmoy Saha, Arindam Halder, Debarati Ganguly
  • Book:
    Basic Electronics
    Published online:
    03 June 2025
    Print publication:
    01 March 2018, pp 751-810

  • Summary

    15.1 INTRODUCTION

    In previous chapters, we dealt with various electronic devices (diode, BJT, FET, etc.) that have been used to design various electronic circuits like rectifier, various kind of amplifiers, oscillators, etc. For all these electronic circuits, the input and or output signals can take any value within a practical range; such signals are known as ‘analog’ signal. Electronic circuits and systems dealing with such analog signals are commonly known as analog circuits. Even though all practical signals are analog in nature, various practical applications and processing of these analog signal require certain sort of quantization and discretization. For instance, while measuring voltage/current using an analog meter, we rely on the deflection of the needle on a properly calibrated scale. Using such analog meter, we can measure any practical voltage/current. On the other hand, while measuring same voltage or current using a digits meter we can get only certain discrete values based on the number of digits in the display panel. However, if adequate numbers of display digits are used, it will provide very accurate result!

    In this chapter, we will introduce the basic concepts and circuits dealing with digital signal, a signal that can take only a finite number of values.

    Figure 15.1(a) and (b) show an analog and digital signal plotted against time(t). As discussed previously, analog signal can take any value within a range, while for a digital signal only a few restricted ranges of amplitudes are allowed. The most common digital signals are binary signal that takes amplitude either high (represented as ‘1’) or low (represented as ‘0’). The circuit that deals with digital signals is commonly known as digital circuit. Most of the modern electronic systems like computer, memory circuits, microprocessors and various electronic gadgets like cell phone, iPad, laptop, etc. are high-end examples of digital circuits.

    The objective of this chapter is to learn the features and operations of fundamental digital logic circuits, which are the backbone of the modern digital computers.

    15.2 DIFFERENT NUMBER SYSTEMS

    To have a clear idea on how arithmetic and logical operations are executed in digital systems, we need to be familiar with various schemes of representation of number in digital systems. From our childhood and school days, we have been familiar with decimal number system, which consists of 10 digits, ranging from 0 to 9.

  • 8 - Climate Change

  • from Part II - Principles And Rules Establishing Standards
  • Philippe Sands, University College London, Jacqueline Peel, University of Melbourne
  • With Adriana Fabra, Universitat de Barcelona, Ruth MacKenzie, University of Westminster
  • Book:
    Principles of International Environmental Law
    Published online:
    07 August 2018
    Print publication:
    01 March 2018, pp 295-336

  • Summary

    INTRODUCTION

    In the first three editions of this book, the problem of climate change and the international legal arrangements developed to address it, were included in the chapter on atmospheric protection. Today, however, international law on climate change constitutes a vast field in its own right. It incorporates not only regulation of atmospheric pollution resulting from the release of greenhouse gases from human activities, but also a range of other issues, including impacts and adaptation, loss and damage, finance, deforestation and forest degradation (REDD+), carbon markets, and linkages with other areas of international law, such as human rights and trade. Moreover, with the conclusion and entry into force of the 2015 Paris Agreement, the structures and processes of rules relating to climate change differ significantly from certain other areas of international environmental law. The Paris Agreement signals a tectonic shift, away from a top-down international standard-setting approach (as in the ozone regime), to a bottom-up regulatory model by which states determine their national contributions to the global response to climate change.

    This chapter provides an introduction to the field of international climate change law, with a focus on the requirements of the Paris Agreement. It begins with a discussion of the climate change problem, summarising the latest scientific findings and highlighting some of the complexities of the issue that have precipitated a substantially different international legal response to that seen in other environmental areas. A brief overview is then provided of the two treaty instruments that preceded, and underpin, the 2015 Paris Agreement: the 1992 Framework Convention on Climate Change and the 1997 Kyoto Protocol. While important in putting climate change on the international agenda, and effecting a shift in consciousness, these treaties failed to slow emissions growth sufficiently or bring about the substantial reorientation in states’ economic policies concerned with energy production, industrial activity, transportation and forestry, necessary to achieve a sustainable climate future.

Page 1231 of 1932