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Summary

INTRODUCTION

Ensuring compliance by members of the international community with their international environmental obligations continues to be a matter of serious concern. This is reflected in the attention the issue received at UNCED, in the negotiation and implementation of environmental agreements, and in the growing number of environmental disputes brought before international judicial bodies. The relevance of environmental concerns to international peace and security was affirmed by the UN Security Council in January 1992, when its members declared that ‘nonmilitary sources of instability in the … ecological fields have become threats to international peace and security’. The response to those concerns has included the development of existing mechanisms for implementation, enforcement and dispute settlement (such as the specialised rules for arbitrating environmental disputes promulgated by the Permanent Court of Arbitration in 2001), as well as novel approaches such as the non-compliance mechanisms established under a number of environmental agreements, and the role given to the UN Compensation Commission over environmental claims.

Of the reasons proffered for renewed efforts, at least three are especially relevant. First, it is apparent that states are taking on ever more international environmental commitments, of increasing stringency. Second, the growing demands on access to finite natural resources, such as freshwater and fish, provide fertile conditions for conflicts over the use of natural resources. And, third, as international environmental obligations increasingly intersect with economic interests, states that do not comply with their environmental obligations are perceived to gain unfair competitive advantage from non-compliance. Non-compliance is seen to be important because it limits the effectiveness of legal commitments, undermines the international legal process, and can lead to conflict and instability in the international order. It occurs for different reasons, and it is widely recognised that the underlying causes require further attention so that existing and new international legal obligations are crafted to ensure their effective implementation. At UNCED, attention was focused on mechanisms to prevent disputes and to resolve them peacefully when they arise. Subsequent efforts have reflected a desire to address enforcement and dispute settlement in a non-contentious and non-adversarial manner.

Summary

The Synurophyceae are closely related to the Chrysophyceae (Ariztia et al., 1991). The Synurophyceae differ, however, from the Chrysophyceae in the following: the Synurophyceae have chlorophylls a and c 1 (Andersen and Mulkey, 1983), the flagella are inserted into the cell approximately parallel to one another (Fig. 11.1), there is a photoreceptor near the base of each flagellum, there is no eyespot, and the contractile vacuole is in the posterior portion of the cell (Lavau et al., 1997 ; Andersen et al., 1999). Chloroplast endoplasmic reticulum is present in a few species, but absent in most. The cells usually are covered by bilaterally symmetrical scales.

In the Synurophyceae, scales composed of silica commonly occur outside the cell (Figs. 11.1, 11.2, 11.3). The scales are bilaterally symmetrical and are formed in a silica deposition vesicle. The membrane of the silica deposition vesicle (the silicalemma) controls the shape of the scale along with proteins and glycoproteins that adhere the developing scale to the silicalemma (Schultz et al., 2001). The presence of germanium in the medium results in inhibition of scale formation (Klaveness and Guillard, 1975). The scales are carried in the scale vesicle to the plasma membrane where the plasma membrane and the scale vesicle fuse, releasing the scales outside the cell (Beech et al., 1990). The scales are held next to the cell in an organic envelope (Ludwig et al., 1996), which is either hyaline or yellow-brown, the latter appearance being due to the impregnation of iron salts. The scales of the Synurophyceae are commonly composed of a number of parts, such as the dome, shield, and bristle of Mallomonas (Lavau and Wetherbee, 1994) (Figs. 11.2, 11.3(c), (d)). The scales of the Synurophyceae are overlapped precisely so that the anterior end of one scale overlaps the right margin of the scale to its left (Leadbeater, 1990). The scales are cemented together to form a scale case by the organic envelope. This precise arrangement of scales differs from the loosely arranged scales of the Chrysophyceae.

Analysis of lake sediments often reveals the presence of the silicified scales of the Synurophyceae as well as the silicified frustules of diatoms (Smol et al., 1984 ; Dixit et al., 1999).

Summary

The algae in the Heterokontophyta usually have cells with an anterior tinsel and posterior whiplash flagellum (Fig. 10.1). The plastids contain chlorophylls a and c along with fucoxanthin. The storage product is usually chrysolaminarin in cytoplasmic vesicles.

Based on molecular evidence (Horn et al., 2007 ; Kai et al., 2008 ; Schmidt et al., 2012 ; Yang et al., 2012), the algae in the Heterokontophyta can be divided into three clades.

Clade 1. Chrysophyceae, Synurophyceae, Eustigmatophyceae, Pinguiophyceae, Synchromophyceae.

Clade 2. Bacillariophyceae, Bolidophyceae, Dictyochophyceae, Pelagophyceae.

Clade 3. Phaeophyceae, Raphidophyceae, Xanthophyceae, Phaeothamniophyceae, Chrysomerophyceae, Schizocladiophyceae, Aurearenophyceae.

Since some of these classes have only a few representatives, and because this is a basic textbook, I have chosen not dealt with the algae in the Synchromophyceae, Chrysomerophyceae, Schizocladiophyceae, and Aurearenophyceae. The following classes are covered here (Andersen, 2004):

Chrysophyceae (golden-brown algae) (Chapter 10)

Synurophyceae (Chapter 11)

Eustigmatophyceae (Chapter 12)

Pinguiophyceae (Chapter 13)

Dictyochophyceae (silicoflagellates) (Chapter 14)

Pelagophyceae (Chapter 15)

Bolidophyceae (Chapter 16)

Bacillariophyceae (diatoms) (Chapter 17)

Raphidophyceae (chloromonads) (Chapter 18)

Xanthophyceae (yellow-green algae) (Chapter 19)

Phaeothamniophyceae (Chapter 20)

Phaeophyceae (brown algae) (Chapter 21).

CHRYSOPHYCEAE

The Chrysophyceae are distinguished chemically by having chlorophylls a, c 1, and c 2 (Andersen and Mulkey, 1983) and structurally by two flagella inserted into the cell perpendicular to each other, one photoreceptor on the short flagellum that is usually shaded by an eyespot in the anterior portion of the chloroplast, contractile vacuoles in the anterior portion of the cell, chloroplast endoplasmic reticulum, and radially or biradially symmetrical silica scales (if they are present). The storage product is chrysolaminarin. Many members of the class produce statospores enclosed in a silicified wall with a terminal pore. The Chrysophyceae/Synurophyceae probably originated about 268 Ma (million years ago) (Brown, 2010).

Most of the species in the Chrysophyceae are freshwater species, and occur in soft waters (low in calcium). Many of the freshwater species are in the plankton of lakes where they are present in abundance. The coccoid and filamentous genera are found mostly in cold springs and brooks, where they occur as gelatinous or crustous growths on stones and woodwork.

Summary

INTRODUCTION

The integration of economic and environmental aspects of international law has been an important aspect of international environmental law particularly since UNCED. Such integration was prompted in part by considerations of the relationship between differing environmental standards and economic competitiveness. Principle 4 of the Rio Declaration reflects this interdependence, providing that ‘in order to achieve sustainable development environmental protection shall constitute an integral part of the development process and cannot be considered in isolation from it’. The theme of integration was central to the preparations for UNCED. Agenda 21 recognised that the international economy should provide a ‘supportive international climate for achieving environment and development goals’, and identified the following as objectives for the international community:

Summary

15.1 INTRODUCTION

In previous chapters, we dealt with various electronic devices (diode, BJT, FET, etc.) that have been used to design various electronic circuits like rectifier, various kind of amplifiers, oscillators, etc. For all these electronic circuits, the input and or output signals can take any value within a practical range; such signals are known as ‘analog’ signal. Electronic circuits and systems dealing with such analog signals are commonly known as analog circuits. Even though all practical signals are analog in nature, various practical applications and processing of these analog signal require certain sort of quantization and discretization. For instance, while measuring voltage/current using an analog meter, we rely on the deflection of the needle on a properly calibrated scale. Using such analog meter, we can measure any practical voltage/current. On the other hand, while measuring same voltage or current using a digits meter we can get only certain discrete values based on the number of digits in the display panel. However, if adequate numbers of display digits are used, it will provide very accurate result!

In this chapter, we will introduce the basic concepts and circuits dealing with digital signal, a signal that can take only a finite number of values.

Figure 15.1(a) and (b) show an analog and digital signal plotted against time(t). As discussed previously, analog signal can take any value within a range, while for a digital signal only a few restricted ranges of amplitudes are allowed. The most common digital signals are binary signal that takes amplitude either high (represented as ‘1’) or low (represented as ‘0’). The circuit that deals with digital signals is commonly known as digital circuit. Most of the modern electronic systems like computer, memory circuits, microprocessors and various electronic gadgets like cell phone, iPad, laptop, etc. are high-end examples of digital circuits.

The objective of this chapter is to learn the features and operations of fundamental digital logic circuits, which are the backbone of the modern digital computers.

15.2 DIFFERENT NUMBER SYSTEMS

To have a clear idea on how arithmetic and logical operations are executed in digital systems, we need to be familiar with various schemes of representation of number in digital systems. From our childhood and school days, we have been familiar with decimal number system, which consists of 10 digits, ranging from 0 to 9.

Summary

INTRODUCTION

In the first three editions of this book, the problem of climate change and the international legal arrangements developed to address it, were included in the chapter on atmospheric protection. Today, however, international law on climate change constitutes a vast field in its own right. It incorporates not only regulation of atmospheric pollution resulting from the release of greenhouse gases from human activities, but also a range of other issues, including impacts and adaptation, loss and damage, finance, deforestation and forest degradation (REDD+), carbon markets, and linkages with other areas of international law, such as human rights and trade. Moreover, with the conclusion and entry into force of the 2015 Paris Agreement, the structures and processes of rules relating to climate change differ significantly from certain other areas of international environmental law. The Paris Agreement signals a tectonic shift, away from a top-down international standard-setting approach (as in the ozone regime), to a bottom-up regulatory model by which states determine their national contributions to the global response to climate change.

This chapter provides an introduction to the field of international climate change law, with a focus on the requirements of the Paris Agreement. It begins with a discussion of the climate change problem, summarising the latest scientific findings and highlighting some of the complexities of the issue that have precipitated a substantially different international legal response to that seen in other environmental areas. A brief overview is then provided of the two treaty instruments that preceded, and underpin, the 2015 Paris Agreement: the 1992 Framework Convention on Climate Change and the 1997 Kyoto Protocol. While important in putting climate change on the international agenda, and effecting a shift in consciousness, these treaties failed to slow emissions growth sufficiently or bring about the substantial reorientation in states’ economic policies concerned with energy production, industrial activity, transportation and forestry, necessary to achieve a sustainable climate future.

Summary

As we saw in the last chapter, in the international business environment of the twenty-first century, few companies have all the resources and capabilities they need to develop the kind of multidimensional strategies and adaptive organizational capabilities we have described. Increasingly, they must collaborate not only for research purposes, but also with their suppliers, distributors, customers, agents, licensors, joint venture partners, and others to meet the needs of the increasingly complex global environment. This requirement implies that today's MNEs must develop the skills to not only manage assets and resources under their own direct control but also span their corporate boundaries and capture vital capabilities in the partnerships and alliances that are central to the strategic response capability of so many companies. After exploring the motivation for entering into such partnerships, we examine some of the costs and risks of collaboration before discussing the organizational and managerial skills required to build and manage these boundary spanning relationships effectively.

Historically, the strategic challenge for a company has been viewed primarily as one of protecting potential profits from erosion through either competition or bargaining. Such erosion of profits could be caused not only by the actions of competitors but also by the bargaining powers of customers, suppliers, and governments. The key challenge facing a company was assumed to be its ability to maintain its independence by maintaining strong control over its activities. Furthermore, this strategic approach emphasized the defensive value of making other entities depend on it by capturing critical resources, building switching costs, and exploiting other vulnerabilities.

This view of strategy subsequently underwent a sea change. The need to pursue multiple sources of competitive advantage simultaneously (as we discussed in detail in Chapter 3) led to the need to build both an interdependent and integrated network organization within the company (Chapter 4) but also collaborative relationships externally with other firms, be they competitors, customers, suppliers, or other institutions.

This important shift in strategic perspective was triggered by a variety of factors, including rising R…D costs, shortened product life cycles, growing barriers to market entry, increasing needs for global-scale economies, and the expanding importance of global standards.

Summary

INTRODUCTION

The terms ‘biological diversity’ or ‘biodiversity’ are of relatively recent usage in international law. Until the 1980s, international instruments tended to address ‘wildlife’ or ‘wild fauna and flora’, and focused on species and habitats. ‘Biodiversity’ is a more inclusive term and can be considered in relation to three hierarchical categories which describe different aspects of living systems measured in different ways: genetic diversity; species diversity; and ecosystem diversity.

However measured, there is a scientific consensus that biodiversity is being lost. The 2015 Global Forest Resources Assessment indicated that 129 million hectares of forest have been lost since 1990, although the net rate of global deforestation slowed in that period. The 2010 third Global Biodiversity Assessment (GBO 3) recorded that more than 95 per cent of North American grasslands have been lost, and that savannah and grassland have suffered severe declines elsewhere. The GBO 3 also noted that terrestrial habitats have become highly fragmented, threatening the viability of many species and ecosystem services. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment reported that about 20 per cent of the world's coral reefs have been destroyed and another 20 per cent degraded. In relation to species populations, the GBO 3 suggested that the population of wild vertebrate species fell by an average of 31 per cent globally between 1970 and 2006, with particularly severe declines in the tropics and in freshwater ecosystems. Much remains unknown about biodiversity – only a fraction of the species thought to exist have been described, and, as the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment acknowledged, ‘the extent of extinctions of undescribed taxa is unknown, the status of many described species is poorly known, it is difficult to document the final disappearance of very rare species, and there are time lags between the impact of a threatening process and the resulting extinction’.

Reasons for conserving nature and biodiversity are essentially threefold. First, biodiversity provides an actual and potential source of biological resources including, for example, for use as food and feed, as well as for pharmaceutical, industrial and other applications. Second, biodiversity contributes to the maintenance of the biosphere in a condition that supports human and other life. This concept of ‘ecosystem services’ provided by biodiversity has become central to contemporary policy debates on the issue. Third, biodiversity conservation may be based on ethical, intrinsic, aesthetic and cultural considerations.

Summary

The Raphidophyceae, or chloromonads, have chlorophylls a and c, and two membranes of chloroplast endoplasmic reticulum. The anterior flagellum is commonly tinsel, whereas the posterior flagellum is naked (Figs. 18.1, 18.2, 18.3). The freshwater species of the Raphidophyceae are green, whereas the marine forms are yellowish and contain the carotenoid fucoxanthin (Vesk and Moestrup, 1987). The closest relatives of the Raphidophyceae are the Eustigmatophyceae and the Chrysophyceae (Cavalier-Smith and Chao, 1996).

Marine species are euryhaline and eurythermic (tolerant of a wide salinity and temperature range) and occur in temperate and subtropical waters worldwide (Tobin et al., 2013). Marine genera are Chattonella (Fig. 18.3), Fibrocapsa (Fig. 18.1(b)), and Heterosigma (Fig. 18.1(a)). Many of the marine species produce neurotoxic compounds that are similar to brevetoxin (Fig. 18.2). Uptake of the toxin by fish results in depolarization of nerves supplying the heart. This reduces the heart rate, thereby lowering blood pressure, which in turn affects the transfer of oxygen to the gill lamellae, creating hypoxic conditions that lead to fish mortality (Tyrrell et al., 2001).

Toxic red-tide blooms of the marine Chattonella antiqua and Heterosigma carterae (Taylor, 1992) have occurred in the Seto Inland Sea in Japan (Watanabe et al., 1988). These red tides occurred in the summer when a salinity and temperature stratification occurred at a depth of 5–10 m. There was little mixing of waters above and below the stratified layer resulting in the upper layer being deficient in nutrients while the bottom layer was anaerobic. Heterosigma carterae flourishes under these conditions because it has a daily vertical migration of 10–15 m and this allows the alga to move between the stratified layers. This migration enables H. carterae to use the nutrients in the lower layers, and light and oxygen in the upper layer, resulting in the red-tide blooms of the organism. The migration is correlated with the production and degradation of cytoplasmic fat particles (Wada et al., 1987).

Heterosigma carterae has a wide salinity tolerance in culture (3–50%) and loses its motility at temperatures below 10 °C. At 5–10 °C, the alga forms non-motile masses capable of surviving in continuous darkness for up to 15 weeks (Han et al., 2002).

Summary

The Pelagophyceae are a group of basically unicellular algae that are cytologically similar to the Chrysophyceae, in which they were previously classified (Andersen et al., 1993). The cells are very small, members of the ultraplankton (cells less than 2 μm) and appear as small spheres with indistinct protoplasm under the light microscope. Recent studies on the sequences of small-subunit RNA nucleotides in these algae have shown them to be closely related to each other and distinct from other members of the Heterokontophyta (Saunders et al., 1997). While these algae have been shown to be distinct from other members of the Heterokontophyta based on molecular data, they do not have cytological or morphological characters which are very different from other members of the phylum.

Pelagomonas calceolata is a very small (1.5 μm. 3 μm) ultraplanktonic marine alga with a single tinsel flagellum and basal body, and a single chloroplast and mitochondrion (Fig. 15.1(c)) (Andersen et al., 1993). Another member of the marine ultraplankton is Pelagococcus subviridis, a green-gold spherical non-motile cell (2.5–3.0 μm) with a single chloroplast, mitochondrion, and nucleus (Fig. 15.1(a)) (Vesk and Jeffery, 1987).

Members of the class are economically important because some of the algae produce “brown tides” (Ong et al., 2010). Aureoumbra lagunensis (Fig. 15.1(b)) is the causative agent of brown tides in Texas (DeYoe et al., 1997), while Aureococcus anophagefferens forms brown tides along the coasts of New Jersey, New York, and Rhode Island. The numbers of cells in brown tides can be so large that they can exclude light from the benthic eelgrass (Zostera marine), resulting in elimination of the eelgrass. The larvae of the bay scallop feed off eelgrass, and the bay scallop industry was virtually wiped out for a number of years after a brown tide in the waters off the northeast United States (Nicholls, 1995).

Aureoumbra lagunensis (Fig. 15.1(b)) is able to grow at its maximum rate at salinities as high as 70 PSU (practical salinity units ; seawater is about 35 PSU). Few algae are able to survive these hypersaline conditions. In addition, the surface of the cells are covered with a slime layer that reduces predation (Liu and Buskey, 2000).

Summary

This book grew out of the authors’ strongly held belief that the best research in the academic fields of international business and cross-border management did more than capture the activities, challenges, and best practices from the field. It also translated those findings into practical and relevant lessons for managers and students of management. That philosophy and commitment has shaped the content of Transnational Management over the 25 years since it was first published, and remains at the core of this eighth edition.

Indeed, it was our commitment to deliver current, relevant, and practical research in an engaging format to the students who will be tomorrow's business leaders that led us to make an important change with this new edition. As we became increasingly concerned that many textbooks – including this one – were being priced beyond the means of many of those we were trying to reach, we decided to work with a publisher whose commitments more closely aligned with ours. So this eighth edition of Transnational Management begins our exciting new relationship with Cambridge University Press, a publisher that shares our values.

In the quarter-century since the first edition of Transnational Management was published, much has changed in the field of multinational enterprise management. In the rapidly evolving global environment, new external demands have required innovative new strategic responses, flexible new organizational capabilities, and adaptive new management capabilities. But many seasoned observers who have operated in the global business environment for decades will insist that despite these differences, the core agenda remains remarkably constant. They make a convincing case that beyond ongoing and inevitable adjustments and refinements, the tensions that characterize cross-border management remain much as they have always been: understanding the world's inexorable evolution toward an integrated strategic whole, yet being sensitive to the constantly evolving impediments and constraints to that ideal; recognizing global and regional opportunities while also being aware of cross-cultural differences and responsive to host country demands; developing the ability to be fast, flexible, and adaptive while also overcoming the barriers to such seamless implementation due to the reality of the distance, language, time, and culture that separate worldwide operations.

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5 - Compliance: Implementation, Enforcement, Dispute Settlement

Summary

11 - Heterokontophyta, Synurophyceae

Summary

Chapter 3 - Mars

Index

Chapter 7 - The Nature of Exoplanetary Systems

Acknowledgements

Chapter 6 - The Detection of Exoplanets

10 - Heterokontophyta, Chrysophyceae

Summary

18 - International Economic Law: Trade, Investment and Intellectual Property

Summary

Chapter 15 - Introduction to Digital Logic Circuits

Summary

8 - Climate Change

Summary

6 - Engaging in Cross-Border Collaboration: Managing Across Corporate Boundaries

Summary

10 - Biological Diversity

Summary

Part II - Principles And Rules Establishing Standards

18 - Heterokontophyta, Raphidophyceae

Summary

15 - Heterokontophyta, Pelagophyceae

Summary

15 - Introduction to Digital Logic Circuits

11 - Silicon Controlled Rectifiers

Preface

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Acknowledgements

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