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38669 results in Cambridge Textbooks

Page 1236 of 1934

  • Preface to the Fifth Edition

  • Robert Edward Lee, Colorado State University
  • Book:
    Phycology
    Published online:
    06 August 2018
    Print publication:
    01 March 2018, pp xi-xii

  • Summary

    It has been 45 years since I spent a considerable amount of time among the extensive collections in the old Cullen and the new Wartenweiler libraries at the University of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg, writing and illustrating most of the first edition of Phycology. The illustrations were pen and ink, the photographs were done in the wet trays in the darkroom, and the text was written using a Smith Corona typewriter. The Smith Corona typewriter is presumably still in Iran as my family left with only three suitcases and could not carry the typewriter after sitting out the revolution in Shiraz and living under the clerical regime of Khomeini for a few months. We were probably one of the last American families to leave Shiraz. I had been a US Army platoon leader in Vietnam and the family had lived under UDI in Rhodesia, apartheid in South Africa, and had experienced the Portuguese African wars, so we weren't too rattled by the Iranian Revolution. However, after getting past the cordon of Soviet BTR-60 eight-wheeled armored cars and light Scorpion tanks surrounding the Shiraz airport, we were pleased to be getting on an airplane for Bahrain with the first edition of Phycology in hand.

    A lot has, of course, changed since then. No more typewriter, everything is done using Microsoft Word on the computer. No more pen and ink, drawings are now done with Adobe Illustrator. No more darkroom, photographs are digitally manipulated with Adobe Photoshop.

    The science of phycology has moved on also. In the first edition, the hot research papers were about life cycles and cytology using electron microscopes. These areas of research have now matured and do not generate anywhere near the levels of interest in the field. While the fifth edition of Phycology has generally updated the field, certain areas have received more attention. Specifically:

  • • The evolution of the chloroplast from cyanobacteria has rightly been extensively investigated since the process of photosynthesis is integral to the production of food stuffs for the world population. It has been known for some time that algal chloroplasts evolved from endosymbiotic cyanobacteria. However, it is only recently that many of the transport issues involving control of division and metabolism of chloroplasts has been elucidated, essential information in the understanding of photosynthesis.

  • 7 - Atmospheric Protection

  • from Part II - Principles And Rules Establishing Standards
  • Philippe Sands, University College London, Jacqueline Peel, University of Melbourne
  • With Adriana Fabra, Universitat de Barcelona, Ruth MacKenzie, University of Westminster
  • Book:
    Principles of International Environmental Law
    Published online:
    07 August 2018
    Print publication:
    01 March 2018, pp 252-294

  • Summary

    INTRODUCTION

    The protection of the atmosphere was a relative latecomer to international environmental regulation but is now well established. With limited exceptions, until 1979 no treaty sought, as its primary purpose, to place limits on the right of states to allow atmospheric emissions that caused environmental damage. Some treaties had, however, called for general preventive strategies. Since 1979, numerous treaties and other international acts have addressed the protection of the atmosphere. The precedents set by treaties relating to the protection of other environmental media, in particular the marine environment, have contributed to the development of these rules.

    This chapter discusses the international legal rules concerning protection of the atmosphere, including outer space. Milestones in the development of international law in this area have included: the 1938 and 1941 decisions in the Trail Smelter case; the applications brought to the ICJ by Australia and New Zealand against France with respect to French atmospheric nuclear tests in the Pacific Ocean region; efforts by international expert bodies such as the ILA, IDI and ILC to discern customary law rules; and consideration of the issue at successive UN environmental summits. Although there is no atmospheric equivalent to the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, international legal instruments on protection of the atmosphere have been adopted at the regional and global levels, often in response to particular air pollution problems or incidents. Examples include growing evidence in Europe and North America in the 1970s of acid rain damage from atmospheric emissions of sulphur compounds; the 1986 Chernobyl accident; growing evidence in the 1980s of depletion of the ozone layer; and greater awareness of the threats posed by forest fires with transnational effects, such as those in Indonesia in 1997 and 2013/2014 which caused widespread regional problems. The resulting treaty instruments considered in this chapter address a range of issues, including: (1) urban and transboundary air pollution by a range of air pollutants (such as sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, volatile organic compounds, ammonia, fine particulates including black carbon, heavy metals such as mercury and persistent organic pollutants (POPs)); (2) the protection of the ozone layer; and (3) the protection of the environment of outer space. Prevention of climate change through regulation of emissions of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere has also been a substantial focus of international legal activity.

  • 1 - Basic Characteristics of the Algae

  • from Part I - Introduction
  • Robert Edward Lee, Colorado State University
  • Book:
    Phycology
    Published online:
    06 August 2018
    Print publication:
    01 March 2018, pp 2-30

  • Summary

    Phycology or algology is the study of the algae. The word phycology is derived from the Greek word phykos, which means “seaweed.” The term algology, described in Webster's dictionary as the study of the algae, has fallen out of favor because it resembles the term algogenic, which means “producing pain.” The algae are thallophytes (plants lacking roots, stems, and leaves) that have chlorophyll a as their primary photosynthetic pigment and lack a sterile covering of cells around the reproductive cells. This definition encompasses a number of plant forms that are not necessarily closely related, for example, the cyanobacteria which are closer in evolution to the bacteria than to the rest of the algae.

    Algae most commonly occur in water, be it freshwater, marine, or brackish. However, they can also be found in almost every other environment on Earth, from the algae growing in the snow of some American mountains to algae living in lichen associations on bare rocks, to unicellular algae in desert soils, to algae living in hot springs. In most habitats they function as the primary producers in the food chain, producing organic material from sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water. Besides forming the basic food source for these food chains, they also form the oxygen necessary for the metabolism of the consumer organisms. In such cases, humans rarely directly consume the algae as such, but harvest organisms higher up in the food chain (i.e., fish, crustaceans, shellfish). Some algae, particularly the reds and browns, are harvested and eaten as a vegetable, or the mucilages are extracted from the thallus for use as gelling and thickening agents.

    Structure of the Algal Cell

    There are two basic types of cells in the algae, prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Prokaryotic cells lack membrane-bounded organelles (plastids, mitochondria, nuclei, Golgi bodies, and flagella) and occur in the cyanobacteria (Fig. 2.8). The remainder of the algae are eukaryotic and have organelles.

    A eukaryotic cell (Fig. 1.1) is often surrounded by a cell wall composed of polysaccharides that are partially produced and secreted by the Golgi body. The plasma membrane (plasmalemma) surrounds the remaining part of the cell; this membrane is a living structure responsible for controlling the influx and outflow of substances in the protoplasm. Locomotory organs, the flagella, propel the cell through the medium by their beating.

  • 2 - Introduction to Semiconductor

  • Chinmoy Saha, Arindam Halder, Debarati Ganguly
  • Book:
    Basic Electronics
    Published online:
    03 June 2025
    Print publication:
    01 March 2018, pp 19-73

  • Summary

    INTRODUCTION TO SOLIDS AND CRYSTALS

    As the atoms or molecules in solids are attached to one another with strong attracting forces, the solid maintains a definite volume and shape. A separate subject named solid-state physics has been evolved for the study of the electrical, thermal and electronic properties as well as behaviour of solids. Solid-state physics can be defined as the branch of physics which deals with physical properties of solids, particularly crystals, and the behaviour of electrons in these solids. A subset of solid-state physics is solid-state electronics, which mainly focuses on the electrical and electronic behaviour of solids, especially semiconductors and the movement/transport of electrons in semiconductor materials and different semiconductor devices, basic and advanced, which have evolved over the last century.

    Solids may be broadly classified into two categories depending upon the arrangement of the atoms and molecules:

  • i) Crystalline Solid: It consists of regular or periodic arrangement of atoms or molecules. Most of the solids are crystalline in nature. This is due to the fact that crystalline state is the low energy state and is, therefore, preferred by most solids.

  • ii) Amorphous/Non-Crystalline Solid: It consists of completely random arrangement of atoms or molecules. Such type of materials are formed when the atoms do not get sufficient time to undergo a periodic arrangement.

    • Example: Glass, plastic, rubber, etc.

    Crystalline solids may be further subdivided into Single Crystal Solid and Polycrystalline Solid. In single crystal solids, the periodicity of the atoms extends throughout the material, as in the case of diamond, quartz, mica, etc. A polycrystalline material is an aggregate of a number of small crystallites with random orientations separated by well-defined boundaries. Most of the metals and ceramics exhibit polycrystalline structure. Silicon (Si), the most widely used semiconductor material, is also a polycrystalline in its natural form.

    CRYSTALLINE SOLID

    Before describing the arrangement of atoms in a crystalline solid, it is always convenient to describe the arrangement of the imaginary points in space which have a definite positional/spatial relationship with the atoms of the crystal. This set of imaginary three-dimensional points forms a framework on which the actual crystal structure is based. Such a three-dimensional network is called a space lattice, and it can be described as an infinite three-dimensional array of points. Each point in the space lattice has identical surroundings and is named as a lattice point.

  • Chapter 6 - Modelling of BJT and Design of Amplifiers

  • Chinmoy Saha, Arindam Halder, Debarati Ganguly
  • Book:
    Basic Electronics
    Published online:
    03 June 2025
    Print publication:
    01 March 2018, pp 322-406

  • Summary

    6.1 INTRODUCTION

    In Chapter 4, we discussed the basic construction, characteristics, various modes and principle of operation of bipolar junction transistor (BJT) in detail. Subsequently, in Chapter 5, we dealt with biasing techniques of the transistor in an elaborate manner. In addition, we understood the fundamental concept of BJT acting as an amplifier in a qualitative manner. While biasing a transistor our main goal is to fix a proper operating point, also known as Q point, based on the specific applications. This is achieved by proper choice of the bias resistor and DC voltages. Once this Q-point is finalized, we apply the AC signal in the input side of the biased transistor circuit. Thus, complete analysis of an amplifier consists of DC analysis followed by an AC analysis. In this chapter, we will focus on the AC analysis of the BJT circuits in an elaborate manner with special emphasis on design of the BJT-based linear amplifiers. One important ingredient in the AC analysis and design of linear amplifiers is to replace the BJT with proper equivalent circuits. Such replacement of BJTs with equivalent circuits, known as ‘modeling’ of the BJT, is applicable under small signal approximations. This assumes the amplitude of the applied AC signal is small enough to consider that BJT is essentially operated in active region and its characteristics can be approximated by linear relations. Such linear relations between input and output signals of the BJT allow superposition theorem applicable in BJT circuits and we can obtain the total response of the BJT circuit by separately determining the response due to i) DC sources alone (called biasing), and ii) AC sources. Figure 6.1 shows a schematic diagram of an electronic circuit driven by both DC and AC input. While the purpose of the DC input is to ensure that the device operates in the desired region of operation, i.e. bias the device properly, AC input provides the required functionality like amplification, switching, etc. By applying the small-signal models of the device, thereby linearizing their performance, we apply the superposition theorem to obtain the overall response of the circuit by separately obtaining the individual responses due to DC input and AC input, as shown in Figure 6.1.

  • 19 - Future Developments

  • from Part IV - Linkage Of International Environmental Law And Other Areas Of International Law
  • Philippe Sands, University College London, Jacqueline Peel, University of Melbourne
  • With Adriana Fabra, Universitat de Barcelona, Ruth MacKenzie, University of Westminster
  • Book:
    Principles of International Environmental Law
    Published online:
    07 August 2018
    Print publication:
    01 March 2018, pp 930-940

  • Summary

    INTRODUCTION

    The Stockholm Conference is widely regarded as the moment of ‘birth’ of modern international environmental law, so its approaching fiftieth anniversary offers a moment to reflect on what international environmental law has achieved and the challenges that lie ahead. Since the first edition of this book was published in 1994, international environmental law has become an important disciplinary area within the broader field of international law. Its focus is regulation of ‘the environment’, which encompasses both the natural world and human interactions with it, and is characterised by a complex system of interconnections. The interdependence of environmental issues poses a constant challenge for international law: how to develop and apply a comprehensive and effective set of legal requirements that will prevent environmental damage by addressing the sources, without taking measures that will cause harm elsewhere.

    Over the past several decades, significant steps have been made towards the development of a more comprehensive and effective legal framework to address environmental issues. In the field of international lawmaking and regulation by states – still the principal actors in international environmental law – notable achievements include: the development and progressive tightening of controls on the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances under the 1987 Montreal Protocol, credited with reversing the trend towards depletion of the ozone layer; the establishment by UNEP of a network of regional seas conventions and protocols covering the world's oceans; the elaboration of a regime for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity incorporating two major protocols (on biosafety and access to genetic resources) as well as a supplementary liability protocol to the biosafety regime; the introduction of landmark rules in the 1998 Aarhus Convention to promote greater public involvement in decision-making, through information, participation and access to justice in environmental matters; and the growing willingness of international courts to address environmental issues, even if they often reflect a cautious, timid approach.

  • Part II - The Prokaryotic Algae

  • Robert Edward Lee, Colorado State University
  • Book:
    Phycology
    Published online:
    06 August 2018
    Print publication:
    01 March 2018, pp 31-31

  • Summary

    The cyanobacteria or blue-green algae form a natural group by virtue of being the only prokaryotic algae. Prokaryotic algae have an outer plasma membrane enclosing protoplasm containing photosynthetic thylakoids, 70S ribosomes, and DNA fibrils not enclosed within a separate membrane. Chlorophyll a is the main photosynthetic pigment, and oxygen is evolved during photosynthesis.

  • 11 - Oceans, Seas and Marine Living Resources

  • from Part II - Principles And Rules Establishing Standards
  • Philippe Sands, University College London, Jacqueline Peel, University of Melbourne
  • With Adriana Fabra, Universitat de Barcelona, Ruth MacKenzie, University of Westminster
  • Book:
    Principles of International Environmental Law
    Published online:
    07 August 2018
    Print publication:
    01 March 2018, pp 455-568

  • Summary

    INTRODUCTION

    Oceans cover about 70 per cent of the Earth's surface, accounting for most of the Earth's water and making up more than 97 per cent of the biosphere. The oceans nurture life and shape the planet's weather and climate. They create more than half of our oxygen and provide vital sources of protein, energy and minerals. As described by some, ‘Earth is a marine habitat’. The oceans provide food for a billion people, and are also a source of income and livelihood for millions. The FAO estimates that about 200 million people are employed in capture fisheries and aquaculture, and in related secondary activities.

    But oceans are experiencing serious environmental challenges, many of which have unknown consequences. In 1990, a report by the Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection (GESAMP) on the ‘State of the Marine Environment’ highlighted coastal pollution as the principal threat to the marine environment. In 2001, the same group of experts, while recognising that land-based activities continued to be the principal source of pollution, and anticipating the consequences of global warming, acknowledged that pollution is not the only, or even the most severe, threat to the oceans, and that direct physical damage to ecosystems and habitats and over-exploitation of the resources ‘have even greater worldwide effects’.

    Current scientific literature acknowledges the existence of a more complex set of interactions between humans and the marine environment. The principal threats and stresses include: (1) overfishing; (2) habitat loss; (3) pollution (mainly coastal); (4) introduction of invasive species; and (5) climate change. The percentage of stocks fished at biologically unsustainable levels has increased continuously since the 1970s, with more than 30 per cent of stocks estimated as being overfished in 2013.

    Habitat destruction results from direct removal of habitat, including from damaging fishing practices, such as bottom trawling, but also from the alteration of the environment through activities that change inputs into the oceans or interfere with their natural functioning, including pollution.9 The largest source of pollution comes from land-based activities. In coastal areas, the release of nutrients into the water, causing eutrophication, and increased microbial activity through the provision of organic matter are the source of severe problems.

  • 12 - Hazardous Substances and Activities, and Waste

  • from Part II - Principles And Rules Establishing Standards
  • Philippe Sands, University College London, Jacqueline Peel, University of Melbourne
  • With Adriana Fabra, Universitat de Barcelona, Ruth MacKenzie, University of Westminster
  • Book:
    Principles of International Environmental Law
    Published online:
    07 August 2018
    Print publication:
    01 March 2018, pp 569-631

  • Summary

    INTRODUCTION

    International environmental law has tended to regulate specific environmental media and/or resources rather than particular activities or products. There is, however, now a significant body of rules which regulate those activities or products, and associated wastes, considered by the international community, within a region or globally, to be hazardous or dangerous and to merit specific attention. The Biosafety Protocol, regulating certain categories of genetically modified organisms produced via processes of biotechnology, is one such example considered in previous chapters. The reason for international attention to these substances and activities, and to wastes, lies in their potential for global or transboundary impacts on human health or the environment. For instance, toxic chemicals such as dioxins persist in the environment over long time frames and can be dispersed through air or water over a large area. Equally, activities such as the generation of nuclear energy warrant international regulatory involvement when poor safety practices or accidents result in widespread radioactive contamination. Such activities also generate hazardous wastes, which pose long-term problems of storage and disposal.

    As will be seen, both in the case of hazardous substances and activities, and of wastes, there is not presently any single international organisation or treaty that establishes principles and rules of general application. The international community has instead adopted broad policy guidelines. Principle 6 of the 1972 Stockholm Declaration declared that the ‘discharge of toxic substances or of other substances and the release of heat, in such quantities or concentrations as to exceed the capacity of the environment to render them harmless, must be halted in order to ensure that serious or irreversible damage is not inflicted upon ecosystems’. According to Principle 14 of the Rio Declaration, ‘states should effectively co-operate to discourage or prevent the relocation and transfer to other states of any activities and substances that cause severe environmental degradation or are found to be harmful to human health’. Sustainable Development Goal 12 also indirectly references the issue of hazardous substances and wastes by calling for ‘sustainable consumption and production patterns’. One of the associated targets for Goal 12 is to achieve, by 2020, ‘the environmentally sound management of chemicals and all wastes throughout their life cycle, in accordance with agreed international frameworks, and significantly reduce their release to air, water and soil in order to minimize their adverse impacts on human health and the environment.’

Page 1236 of 1934