Content Listing

Summary

There is a crucial difference between how Sanskrit and English use verbs. In a sentence that describes more than one action, English typically uses a chain of finite verbs:

She leaves the house, goes into the forest and sits down.

After she left the house and went into the forest, she sat down.

Sanskrit, on the other hand, frequently has no more than one finite verb in a sentence. Other verbs appear in non-finite form, either as absolutives (also sometimes called gerunds) or as participles. Literally translated, Sanskrit would say:

Having left(absolutive/participle) the house and having gone(absolutive/participle) into the forest,

she sat(finite verb) down.

This section will introduce you to the most frequent of these non-finite forms, the absolutive and the ta-participle.

FORMATION AND MEANING OF THE ABSOLUTIVE AND THE TA-PARTICIPLE

Both of these are formed by adding a suffix to the zero-grade root of a verb. The suffix added in the case of the absolutive of simple verbs is -tvā, that of the ta-participle is -ta-.

The absolutive of a verb ‘x’ means ‘having x-ed’. For example:

√द्रु ‘to run’ –› द्रुत्वा ‘having run’

√कृ ‘to do’ –› कृत्वा ‘having done’

√गम् ‘to go’ –› गत्वा ‘having gone’ (on the zero grade of √गम् –› Chapter 7)

(Absolutives of compound verbs, i.e. verbs that have a preverb (to be introduced in Chapter 10), add -tya if they end in a short vowel, and -ya otherwise. For example, अप-√द्रु ‘to run away’ (अप- = ‘away’) –› अपद्रुत्य ‘having run away’; प्रति-√लिख् ‘to write back’ (प्रति- = ‘back’) –› प्रतिलिख्य ‘having written back’.)

The ta-participle of a verb ‘x’ has a past passive meaning ‘having been x-ed’. For example:

√भृ ‘to carry’ –› भृत- ‘having been carried’

√कृ ‘to do’ –› कृत- ‘having been done’

If a verb cannot sensibly form a passive, the ta-participle has active meaning:

√भू ‘to become/be’ –› भूत- ‘having become’

√गम् ‘to go’ –› गत- ‘having gone’

Summary

Sanskrit inherited a system of accentuation from its mother language, Proto-Indo-European, in which the placement of the accent followed certain word-based rules; no general statement concerning accent placement could be made. Yet this accent, which furthermore was not a stress, but a pitch accent (meaning that the accented syllable was higher in tone/pitch than the other syllables) was lost, and the systems described below were generally adapted in its place.

In all English words that are stressed (i.e. that have a syllable which is pronounced more strongly), the stress is clearly audible; yet by looking at the word, you will not be able to predict which of its syllables is stressed: for example, you simply have to know that the word record is stressed on the first syllable (record) when it is a noun, but on the second syllable (record) when it is a verb. In Sanskrit, word stress is predictable, but weaker, and depends on the ‘weight’ (or ‘length’) of the syllables in a word.

LIGHT AND HEAVY SYLLABLES

A syllable always contains a vowel, and usually also consonants before and/or after it. If there is just one consonant between vowels, it counts as standing at the beginning of a syllable: the word भरति bharati ‘he carries’, for example, is thus split up into the syllables bha, ra and ti. When a word contains two or more consonants adjacent to one another (as in the name शकुन्तला Śakuntalā), all but the last consonant are counted as part of the second syllable (Śa-kun-ta-lā). (The same applies to English: think about how you might pronounce and split up words such as woman, fundamental, captain, function etc.)

We distinguish two kinds of syllable: ‘heavy’ and ‘light’ (also referred to as ‘long and ‘short’). A syllable counts as ‘heavy’ when it contains a long or complex vowel (ā ī ū ṝ e ai o au), when its vowel is followed by more than one consonant (and thus it ends in a consonant itself), or when it contains a vowel followed by anusvāra or visarga.

Summary

THE SUFFIXES -A-, -ANA-, -TRA-, -TVA- AND -TĀ-

The process of noun formation (or ‘derivation’) involves forming nouns from the basis of other words or word forms; cf. English entertainer and entertainment from the verb entertain. In Sanskrit, noun formation usually involves adding a suffix to either a verbal root (which can stand in any of the three vowel grades, yet guṇa is the most common) or another noun (whose first vowel may be put into its vṛddhi grade). Knowledge of these processes will help you recognise many more Sanskrit words than you memorise, and thus improve your reading skills. This chapter focuses on nouns and adjectives formed by means of adding the most frequent a- and ā-stem suffixes.

A very simple way of forming nouns and adjectives from a verbal root is to take that root in guṇa (sometimes also vṛddhi ā) and add -a- to it. This gives us words such as लेख- (m.) ‘a writing, letter’ from √लिख् ‘to write’, वेद- (m.) ‘knowledge’ from √विद् ‘to see, know’ (Chapter 18). स्नेह- means ‘love’; बोध- (m.) means ‘waking, consciousness’, while, used as an adjective, it means ‘knowing, understanding’; हर्ष- used as a masculine noun means ‘excitement’ and, as an adjective, ‘exciting’; हर- and हार- both mean ‘bearing, wearing, carrying’ etc. Nouns derived in this way are frequently masculine, but may also be neuter.

-ana- is another suffix added to verbal roots in guṇa. It forms adjectives and nouns similarly to English -ing: from √मुच् ‘to release, free’, we get the adjective मोचन- ‘releasing, freeing’, which is also used in the neuter as a noun meaning ‘(the act of) releasing, release’. From √वच् ‘to speak’ we find the frequently used noun वचन- ‘(act of) speaking; word, speech’ and an adjective that simply means ‘talking, speaking’. √शुभ् ‘to decorate, adorn; adorn oneself ‘ gives us the adjective शोभन- ‘pleasing, pleasant, beautiful’. Yet it also forms concrete nouns: the noun लोचन-, derived from √लोच् ‘to see’, means ‘eye’.

Summary

A verb, broadly speaking, is a word that expresses an action (such as English she runs, I am singing, they laughed).

This section will give an overview of (1) what kinds of information Sanskrit verb forms can express and (2) how they express them. This involves introducing some new concepts and terminology. It will be helpful to read this section more than once: when you have read everything through and looked at the examples at the bottom, the first paragraphs may make more sense than when you first read them.

THE CATEGORIES OF THE SANSKRIT VERB

We say that the Sanskrit verb is ‘marked for’ – that is, uses different forms to express – the following grammatical categories: person and number; tense, mood and voice.

In the category of person, Sanskrit and English alike differentiate between first, second and third. The first person refers to the speaker (‘I’); the second to the person spoken to (‘you’); and the third person to someone or something spoken about (‘he/she/it’). Again like English, Sanskrit has a singular and a plural number: the singular refers to just one thing or person (‘I’, ‘she’, ‘the chocolate cake’ etc.), while the plural refers to several (‘we’, ‘they’, ‘the cats’ etc.). Yet unlike English, Sanskrit also has a dual number, used to refer to exactly two of something; this should be translated into English either exactly as e.g. ‘we two, the two of us’, ‘the two of them’, ‘the two brothers’, or simply as a plural ‘we’, ‘they’, ‘the brothers’.

Tense is the term for time as it is expressed in verbs. Once again like English, Sanskrit verbs can refer to the present (such as ‘I run’), and are then said to stand in the present tense; they can refer to the future (‘I will run’); or they can refer to the past (‘I ran’).

Summary

THE FUTURE TENSE

The future tense has the same function as its English equivalent: it talks about things that will be. It does not use the present stem (as present and imperfect did), but is formed by means of:

– a verbal root in guṇa (–› Chapter 7 on vowel gradation)
– the future marker -sya- or -iṣya-
– primary endings (i.e. the same endings as those used in the present tense).

Compare the future of √गम् ‘to go’:

The -i- in -iṣya- (with -ṣ- due to ruki; –› Chapter 6) is comparable to the -i- that appears in front of other suffixes that begin with a consonant (such as -ta, -tvā or -tum; –› Chapter 8). As in those other forms, one cannot predict which of the two suffixes (-sya- or -iṣya-) a verb takes. One may even find two futures of the same verb, such as गंस्यति and गमिष्यति ‘he will go’ from √गम् ‘to go’.

While the future stem just described is unrelated to the present tense stem, the future of Class X verbs and causatives is formed by adding -iṣya- to the present stem minus the thematic vowel: कथयति ‘he tells’ –› कथयिष्यति ‘he will tell’; पातयति ‘he causes to fall, throws’ –› पातयिष्यति ‘he will cause to fall, throw’.

Where -sya- is used (rather than -iṣya-), internal sandhi results:

– Before -s-, stops lose any voicing and/or aspiration, and palatals become velars; after a velar, s turns into ṣ according to ruki (e.g.‘to join’: 3rd SG FUT ACT *yoj-sya-ti > *yok-sya-ti > योक्ष्यति ‘he will join’).
– ś turns into k (also turning the following s into ṣ according to ruki): √विश् ‘to enter’ –› 3rd Sg Fut वेक्ष्यति ‘he will enter’; √दृश् ‘to see’ –› 3rd SG FUT द्रक्ष्यति ‘he will see’.
– h also turns into k: √स्निह् ‘to love’ –› स्नेक्ष्यति ‘he will love’.
– Rarely, s turns into t: √वस् vas ‘to dwell’ –› 3rd SG FUT वत्स्यति ‘he will dwell’.

In some verbs whose root-final consonant loses its aspiration (including h > k) through such sandhi, the closest preceding consonant becomes aspirated.

Summary

Ṛ-STEMS

ṛ-stems are vowel-stems; but while most of the endings they employ have already been introduced in relation to other stems, the combination in which they use them is unique. Especially the singular needs to be memorised carefully. ṛ-stems display straightforward internal sandhi: the stem-final sound surfaces as vocalic -ṛ- between consonants and as consonantal -r- everywhere else. In final position, it changes into -ḥ in accordance with external sandhi. Like vant-/mant- and ant-stems (–› Chapter 25), ṛ-stems have stem gradation: their weak stems end in -ṛ, their strong stems (as before, used IN NOMVOCACC DU and PL and NOMVOC PL) in either guṇa -ar or vṛddhi -ār. Their LOC SG (!) stands in guṇa.

Most ṛ-stems actually end in -tṛ (guṇa -tar, vṛddhi -tār). They consist of two semantic groups: one group contains kinship terms, i.e. words denoting family relationships: मातृ- ‘mother’, पितृ- ‘father’, दुहितृ- ‘daughter’, or भ्रातृ- ‘brother’. The -tṛ/-tar in these is directly related to the -ther or -ter in the equivalent English words. The other, much larger group contains agent nouns. By taking a verbal root in guṇa and adding -tṛ, we get nouns such as ने-तृ- ‘leader’ (from √नी ‘to lead’), कर्-तृ- ‘doer, agent’ (from √कृ ‘to make, do’, e.g. in पाप-कर्तृ- ‘evil-doer’), लब्धृ- ‘taker’ (from √लभ् ‘to take’) etc. (The same internal sandhi applies as before -t- elsewhere; –› Chapter 8 and the Reference Grammar in Appendix III for details.) Some roots that end in consonants add not -tṛ, but -itṛ (as e.g. रक्षितृ- ‘protector’ from √रक्ष् ‘to protect’); generally speaking, -itṛ appears in those roots that also employ -itum (rather than -tum) to form their infinitive.

Four of the kinship terms (मातृ- ‘mother’, पितृ- ‘father’, दुहितृ- ‘daughter’ and भ्रातृ- ‘brother’) as well as नृ- ‘man’ behave as we might expect them to: their weak forms employ zero grade -tṛ, their strong forms guṇa -tar. All other kinship terms, as well as all agent nouns, employ not guṇa -tar, but vṛddhi -tār in their strong forms.

Summary

CARDINAL NUMBERS

Unlike in English, Sanskrit numerals (i.e. the words for numbers) have more than one form. The words for one, two, three and four are adjectives with different forms for the different genders. From five to ten, numerals behave like nouns in that they have different forms for the different cases, but are the same regardless of the gender of the word they qualify.

The word for one, एक-, has already been introduced (–› Chapter 22). It appears in all three numbers. In the dual and plural, it needs to be translated as ‘some, a few’. The word for ‘two’ has forms only in the dual; from ‘three’ up there are only plural forms. The citation forms (द्वि-, त्रि- etc.) are the stem forms used in compounds, such as द्विपद्- ‘biped, two-footed’ or त्रिलोचन- ‘three-eyed’.

As you can see, the words for ‘five’, ‘seven’, ‘eight’, ‘nine’ and ‘ten’ decline in the same way, including an endingless nominative shared by all. ‘Six’ employs the same endings, but the paradigm is slightly complicated through the internal sandhi of the stem-final retroflex. ‘Eight’ has two sets of forms: one formally comparable with that of the other numbers, and an older one ending in -au in the NOM SG and having a stem-final long ā (instead of short a) everywhere else. For higher numbers, cf. e.g. Whitney, A Sanskrit Grammar (§§475–89).

ORDINAL NUMBERS

Ordinals are the terms referring to the order of numbers – first, second, third etc. In Sanskrit, they all are a-stem adjectives in masculine and neuter, and ī-stems in the feminine.

प्रथम- ‘first’ षष्ठ- ‘sixth’

द्वितीय- ‘second’ सप्तम- ‘seventh’

तृतीय- ‘third’ अष्टम- ‘eighth’

चतुर्थ-, चतुरीय- ‘fourth’ नवम- ‘ninth’

पञ्चम- ‘fifth’ दशम- ‘tenth’

Summary

Scenario 1

We noticed that when software has a progress bar showing how long a download will take, people are less likely to give up and cancel it. We also realized that people differ a lot in how much patience they have with technology and that will affect whether they cancel the download. We wanted to test these two hypotheses, so we designed an experiment. We prototyped two pieces of software for downloading music files, one with a process bar (Version A) and the other without (Version B). We could set the download time at 10 s, 30 s, 1 min, 3 min, and 10 min. We found a “need for closure” (NFC) scale to assess a person's desire to complete a task. It did not directly measure patience, but it was related to it. We recruited a sample of forty college students. They all took the NFC test, and then twenty were randomly assigned to Version A and the other twenty to Version B. We gave the students 30 min to download as many songs as they could and randomized the download times for each student. We counted the number of times they canceled the download for each of the download times.

Scenario 2

User Verbal Protocol 4356: The user has been given the task of finding a hotel room in downtown Chicago for a particular night and within the range of $100 to $150 per night using a popular travel booking website.

Verbal Protocol: Let's see. I want to get to Chicago. I will click “Find by City,” then I will go to the field to enter “Chicago.” Now I will click “Enter Date.” I see a calendar pop up, so I will click on October, then on 23. Now I will click “Enter.” Okay, now I see a selection: “Search by Price.” I click on this and see a list of options. Great, there is an option $100 to $150, so I will click on that. Now I see ten options …

Summary

Scenario 1

“It's a cool way to keep in touch with old friends and to see what's going on with everybody.”

– Female, 21

“In terms of concerns with privacy, professors from my major were going on to students’ profiles and then charging them with a violation of professionalism for things that they found (e.g., offensive remarks about professors on Facebook walls).”

– Female, 21

“It is an interesting social network for students across the world … I think that Facebook is an interesting phenomena. I have taught high school students for the past 34 years, and Facebook is one of the most popular, and unique ways I have seen for young people to communicate with others, and expand their social network.”

– Female, 59

“Facebook allows people who would not normally stay in touch to be able to and access information and pictures about one another. The new applications make Facebook not just a way to connect but also fun. However, because of Facebook people do not have the opportunity to interact face to face.”

– Female, 20

“I find Facebook to be an incredibly useful social utility that has proven valuable in other ways as well, including student activism, career advancement and academic enrichment.”

– Male, 23

(Comments from participants in a class study on use of Facebook, 2007)

Scenario 2

His name was Josh Evans. He was 16 years old. And he was hot. “Mom! Mom! Mom! Look at him!” Tina Meier recalls her daughter saying.

Josh had contacted Megan Meier through her MySpace page and wanted to be added as a friend. Yes, he's cute, Tina Meier told her daughter. “Do you know who he is?”

“No, but look at him! He's hot! Please, please, can I add him?”

Mom said yes. And for six weeks Megan and Josh – under Tina's watchful eye – became acquainted in the virtual world of MySpace.

Josh said he was born in Florida and recently had moved to O'Fallon. He was homeschooled. He played the guitar and drums.

Summary

Scenario 1

Following the breakup of Microsoft into the ten new Nanosofts and Apple being forced to include OSs in its app store, hundreds of different types of OSs proliferated. Instead of just Windows, Mac OS, and Linux, there were so many different styles and approaches to organizing desktops and files and controlling the functions of computers that no one knew what to choose. It was a mess until CompuMatchMe.com stepped in to match up people with OSs. The idea was that each user has a different makeup of cognitive abilities and styles and preferences. CompuMatchMe.com developed an algorithm for matching the user's person profile with the ideal OS. Their slogan was “We help you to find your OSoul mate.”

Scenario 2

A language instructor was explaining to her class that French nouns, unlike their English counterparts, are grammatically designated as masculine or feminine. Items such as “chalk” or “pencil,” she described, would have a gender association, although in English these words were neutral.

Puzzled, one student raised his hand and asked, “What gender is a computer?”

The teacher was not certain which it was, so she divided the class into two groups and asked them to decide whether a computer should be masculine or feminine. One group comprised the women in the class, and the other, men. Both groups were asked to give four reasons for their recommendation.

The women concluded that computers should be referred to in the masculine gender because

Summary

Scenario 1

The Cylons were built to serve humankind as robotic workers and soldiers. With time, they gained sentience. They rebelled and fought the human race in a major conflict that devastated both sides. An armistice was agreed on, but the Cylons then disappeared for 40 years. They evolved, and they had a plan. They created humanoid models. They returned, infiltrated security, and launched a nuclear attack that eliminated most of the twelve colonies. The humanoid models sought to interbreed with the human survivors. Some of the humans had developed romantic feelings for the humanoid Cylons. Were they “toasters,” or were they human? Could they kill them without remorse? (Adapted from Battlestar Galactica, the 2003 TV miniseries.)

Scenario 2

Kristina and Keith entered the name of their firstborn child into the genealogical database on the family HomeStation just as their ancestors had done for twenty generations. The screen had been replaced by their grandparents 50 years earlier, and the processor by their great-great grandparents 100 years earlier after a fire had damaged it. But Keith had to replace the data entry board every 10 years because of wear and tear. Virtually the same software had been running for all these generations. The OS and the applications for word processors, communications, record keeping, home control, etc., were all Version O, “O” for optimal. They had no need to change or upgrade. Any change would result in a problem or in lower performance. No one in their time thought to entertain the idea of technological change. What for?

Scenario 3

The Gemstone Honors Program at the University of Maryland is a unique multidisciplinary 4-year research program for selected undergraduate honors students of all majors. One of the Gemstone teams was formed to do the “Ultimate App.” The team was composed of Mary, Martha, and Molly (Chapter 1, Scenario 1) and Mike, Mark, and Melvin. Mary was the visionary, majoring in social and cognitive psychology. Martha was the planner, majoring in business and management. Molly was the fabricator, majoring in studio art and design. Mike was the device builder, majoring in electrical engineering. Mark was the writer, majoring in journalism and communication. Melvin was the hacker, majoring in computer science. They made the perfect team! Steam powered with pizza and Pepsi, they envisioned the app of all apps.

Summary

Scenario 1

Interviewer: So, John, what are you doing now?

John: I'm opening up my calendar to see what I've scheduled for tomorrow. That's odd. I thought that I had a dentist appointment at three in the afternoon. No wait, I think I recorded that on my smartphone. I guess they're not synced.

Interviewer: Is that a problem?

John: Well, yes, because there might be other things on my phone that haven't been transferred.

Interviewer: What are you going to do?

John: I think that I'd better sync the two calendars right now.

Interviewer: Okay, how do you do that?

John: I don't really know because in the past it seemed to happen automatically. Now it is not doing that.

Interviewer: What do you think is wrong?

John: Good question … I wonder what is different now? Did I change something? Let me look at the settings for sync on the computer. Looks okay. Now I will look at the phone. That looks okay, too. I don't know.

Interviewer: Do you think anything else changed?

John: I don't know. This is really irritating. I wonder if I have to restart the computer or the phone or both. I'll try both.

Interviewer: Now what?

John: It still doesn't work. What's wrong? I am about ready to give up.

Interviewer: Then what?

John: Then I will just manually compare the schedules and add things to the computer or vice versa.

Interviewer: Okay.

Scenario 2

Mary: Okay, I would like to present the design of the new calendar app for the Android OS. To get the calendar, the user presses the button with the calendar icon on it, here. We believe that the user will want to see the day's schedule first, so we go to the schedule for today. From here, the user can select the week or month view by pressing.

Ted: I don't think we can make that assumption. I might access the calendar to add an event next week or check on when we met last month. I think we need to make a list of all possible tasks, and use an interface to minimize the expected number of clicks across all tasks.

Summary

Scenario 1

James works in purchasing in my building. He is totally into gaming and serves as my informant into PC gaming and its culture. So I asked him, “How do you build a gaming computer?”

James: Well, there are some good websites where you can go to find recommendations, but first you have to figure what you can afford and how much power you want.

Kent: Like, what are the range of prices?

James: So, $500–$600 for a low-end build and $1400 for a high one, not including the monitor.

Kent: What do you have to do to build one?

James: First, you have to get a motherboard, keeping in mind what CPUs, memory, and video cards will be compatible with it.

Kent: That sounds complicated.

James: Not really, the websites help you select the right components. One more thing to keep in mind is making sure that your power supply is adequate enough to run the stuff. The CPU is next. You don't have to get the latest, greatest CPU. Prices drop a lot after a CPU has been on the market for a while like the Intel Core i7.

Kent: Then what?

James: Then memory. I have 16 gig and that is fine and a hard drive. You can get a lot of memory these days. Then the video card and sound card. What's nice about building a computer from components is that you can swap in a better card in the future and keep the computer from becoming obsolete for longer.

Kent: Anything else?

James: Oh, yes! You need a box. The case has to be large enough to store all your components, with room for future upgrades. The most common size is ATX Mid-Tower, which has more than enough space for the typical gaming build.

Kent: Thanks!

James: No problem!

Scenario 2

Human Literacy 101. “OK, class, I am now distributing the schematic for the basic human nervous system. Now remember that all humans differ from this basic schematic because each human is unique down to the serial number, not just the model. Moreover, they are rather plastic and change in random ways over time.

Summary

Scenario 1

Jenny was having problems with her knees so she performed a Google search to find medical information and diagnosis. The first hit was “Arthritis Today: When Knees Go Bad.” She clicked on it, read the first part of the article by Judith Horstman, and continued to read the seven additional parts. Then she searched the Arthritis Foundation website (www.arthritis.org) to help self-diagnose her condition. She couldn't find any simple answers. She went back to Google, clicked on “Scholar,” and quickly looked at a few medical articles that got her nowhere. She clicked on “Images” for fun and scanned through a number of humorous and not so humorous pictures of knees. Returning to the Web search in Google, she eliminated a few ridiculous hits until she found an article titled “Questions and Answers About Knee Problems” at www.niams.nih.gov/Health_info/knee_problems/. This fact sheet appeared on the National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases website. She believed that they should have some answers. Maybe now she was on the right track, but she did not learn anything new as she read through the article. At the end of the article was a section titled “Other Sources of Information on Knee Problems.” The listings were all institutes and foundations, along with their contact information, and offering brochures such as “Taking Care of the Knees” and “Using Your Joints Wisely.” A bit discouraged, she gave up and went to bed.

Scenario 2

Jerry was in a problem-solving mode. He had tried to print a file, but the printer was not responding. What could be the problem? Jerry had many years of computer experience and had developed a number of repertoires for solving problems. First, he tried to print the paper again. No response. Then, he checked the printer. It was on; it appeared to have no paper or ink problems, as would be indicated by flashing buttons. He checked the printer cable. Yes, it was connected to the computer. Next, he made sure that he had selected the right printer and tried again. No response. Then he shut off the printer, turned it on, and tried all over again, but that didn't do it.

Summary

Scenario 1

Dr. Norman: Reza, so you are a student in my course on the psychology of video games. Can you tell me about your involvement with video games?

Reza: Yes, I have played video games all my life since I was a kid up to today. I have played so many different games. All of the Pokémon games, tons of fighting games, first person shooters, and the rest. I am mostly a PC gamer, but I have played games on all of the systems, Gameboy, Gameboy Color, Game Cube, Nintendo DS, Xbox 360 and Xbox One, PS1, PS2, PS3, PS4, Wii, and WiiU.

Dr. Norman: I understand you are into League of Legends now.

Reza: Yes, actually I am the copresident of the University of Maryland League of Legends Club. We currently have over 1,000 members on Facebook.

Dr. Norman: Just what is League of Legends?

Reza: So, League is a MOBA, a multiplayer online battle arena. As of January 2014, over 67 million people played League of Legends per month, 27 million per day, and over 7.5 million concurrently during peak hours. Additionally, League of Legends made over $1.6 billion last year, completely dominating the gaming market (source: http://www.cnbc.com/2016/01/26/digital-gaming-sales-hit-record-61-billion-in-2015-report.html).

Dr. Norman: I understand that tournaments are held. Can you tell me about that?

Reza: Yeah, so since League of Legends is a competitive 5 versus 5 multiplayer game, people love going against each other. With over 130 characters to choose from, building teams around combinations of 5 becomes really exciting for both players and spectators. In the past few years, watching League of Legends at live stadium events has only grown larger, as Riot Games has sold out at venues like Madison Square Garden, the Seoul World Cup Stadium, and the Staples Center in Los Angeles. Viewership reached 36 million people worldwide watching the world championship grand finals last year, overtaking the NBA finals. We also host viewing and gaming parties on campus.

Dr. Norman: So, how is the University of Maryland doing in the competition?

Reza: We have been competing in the uLoL with a number of other universities. This year our team went to the final-four tournament in Boston, but we lost to Robert Morris University.

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APPENDICES

Chapter 8 - Absolutives, ta-Participles and Infinitives; Introduction to Internal Sandhi

Summary

Chapter 2A - Word Stress: Heavy and Light Syllables

Summary

Chapter 17 - Noun Formation

Summary

Chapter 3 - Road Map: Verbs

Summary

Chapter 21 - The Future Tense; Middle and Passive Voice

Summary

Chapter 29 - ṛ-Stems, n-Stems; the Periphrastic Future

Summary

Chapter 37 - Numerals

Summary

Four - Research: Modes and Methods

Summary

Frontmatter

Twelve - Social Media and Interpersonal Relations

Summary

Ten - Individual Differences: People, Performance, and Personality

Summary

Nineteen - The Future: The Ultimate Human–Computer Interface

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Part I - Fundamentals

Nine - Language and Programming

Three - Theoretical Approaches: Models and Metaphors

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Seven - Learning and Memory, Transfer and Interference

Two - Fundamentals: Biological and Technological Bases

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Eight - Thinking and Problem Solving

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Sixteen - Video Games and Entertainment

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