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38536 results in Cambridge Textbooks

Page 1574 of 1927

  • 3 - The elements of climate

  • Roger G. Barry, University of Colorado Boulder, Eileen A. Hall-McKim, University of Colorado Boulder
  • Book:
    Essentials of the Earth's Climate System
    Published online:
    28 May 2018
    Print publication:
    17 March 2014, pp 47-73

  • Summary

    This chapter continues our examination of climatic elements, treating air pressure, winds, air masses, frontal zones, storm tracks, thunderstorms, and mesoscale convective systems. These can be considered as the dynamic elements of the climate system. Pressure differences are the driving force for winds and storm tracks. Air mass contrasts give rise to frontal zones and to changing weather conditions. Thunderstorms may occur as single-cell or multicell clusters. Mesoscale systems are usually violent, moving storms, intermediate in size between thunderstorms and synoptic cyclones. The latter are low-pressure systems that are featured on a weather chart, with a diameter of 1500–5000 km and a lifetime of 5–7 days (see Section 3.4).

    Pressure and winds

    Pressure

    Atmospheric pressure is the force per unit area exerted on a surface by the weight of air above it. Pressure decreases with altitude as there is less overlying weight of air. Observations of pressure at a station, made by measuring the height of a mercury column in a mercury barometer, are “reduced” to pressure at mean sea level (MSL) by corrections for the latitudinal variation of gravity and for air temperature. At MSL the mercury column that is supported by the weight of the atmosphere is approximately 760 mm (29.9 inches) tall. Atmospheric pressure at MSL averages about 1013 millibars (mb) (or 1013 hPa, hectopascals – the pascal unit of pressure equals a force of one newton per square meter. In this text we use the traditional millibar unit). The record low value was 870 mb, in the eye of super-typhoon Tip in the northwest Pacific in October 1979. The highest recorded MSL pressure was 1083 mb, measured at Agata, in northeastern Russia in December 1968. The daily or weekly change of pressure is recorded by a barograph. This is an aneroid barometer comprising an evacuated metal chamber that responds to air pressure changes. It is connected via a series of levers to a pen that traces the pressure on a chart attached to a rotating drum.

  • 7 - Synoptic climatology

  • Roger G. Barry, University of Colorado Boulder, Eileen A. Hall-McKim, University of Colorado Boulder
  • Book:
    Essentials of the Earth's Climate System
    Published online:
    28 May 2018
    Print publication:
    17 March 2014, pp 116-126

  • Summary

    The subfield of synoptic climatology involves the study of local, regional, continental, or hemispheric climatic conditions in the context of atmospheric circulation patterns defined by airflow or pressure fields.

    This chapter examines regional classifications, especially the well-known classification of Hubert Lamb for the British Isles, but also the spatial synoptic classification that is applied at individual weather stations. It then considers the European–North Atlantic scheme of Grosswetterlagen (large-scale weather patterns). Finally, two hemispheric classifications developed in the former Soviet Union are discussed. The chapter examines the advantages and limitations of both subjective empirical approaches and objective numerical ones. It closes by giving examples of recent applications of synoptic climatology in evaluating the realism of the outputs of general circulation models and in assessing teleconnection patterns.

    Introduction

    Synoptic climatology is the study of climate from the perspective of the atmospheric circulation, with emphasis on the connections between regional daily circulation patterns and climatic conditions. This subfield developed during World War II,when efforts were made to predict weather conditions over Japan from patterns of airflow. Major texts on the subject have been written by Barry and Perry in 1973 (Synoptic Climatology: Methods and Applications), Barry and Carleton in 2001 (Synoptic and Dynamic Climatology), and Yarnal in 1993 (Synoptic Climatology in Environmental Analysis: A Primer). The common approach is to determine distinct categories of synoptic weather patterns and then to assess statistically the weather conditions associated with these patterns. A typical classification has about 20–30 types. The patterns may be based on isobaric or geopotential maps or airflow directions. The geographical scales involved range from regional to hemispheric.

  • 6 - Circulation modes

  • Roger G. Barry, University of Colorado Boulder, Eileen A. Hall-McKim, University of Colorado Boulder
  • Book:
    Essentials of the Earth's Climate System
    Published online:
    28 May 2018
    Print publication:
    17 March 2014, pp 103-115

  • Summary

    Introduction

    It has been known since the work of Sir Gilbert Walker in the 1920s that there are major large-scale oscillations within the general atmospheric circulation. Walker described the famous Southern Oscillation in sea-level pressure across the equatorial Pacific Ocean, the North Atlantic Oscillation between the Azores high-pressure cell and the Icelandic low, and the North Pacific Oscillation between the North Pacific high and the Aleutian low. Each of these involves a seesaw in the pressure gradients between the respective centers. It has subsequently been shown that there are many others, including the Northern Annular Mode (NAM) and the Southern Annular Mode (SAM) between northern and southern middle and high latitudes, respectively. The identification of these oscillations became possible when there were extensive series of daily pressure and geopotential height data. Now indices of the principal oscillations are routinely updated by NOAA. In the North Pacific and North Atlantic there are long-term oscillations in sea surface temperatures (SSTs).

    Different modes of these oscillations can persist for months to years and they exert a major influence on regional and global climate, modifying storm tracks and the distribution of climatic anomalies.

    The Southern Oscillation and El Niño

    The Southern Oscillation is a fluctuation of about ±2 mb in surface air pressure between the equatorial eastern and the western Pacific Ocean. Its strength is measured by the difference in MSL pressure between the subtropical high over Tahiti (18° S, 150° W) and the equatorial low over Darwin, Australia (12.5° S, 131° E), referred to as the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI). The inverse correlation coefficient between these two remote pressure centers is about –0.8, meaning that when pressure is high in one center it is low in the other (Figure 6.1). This phenomenon of distant correlations in atmospheric conditions is known as a teleconnection (see Box 6A.1).

  • 4 - Local and microclimates

  • Roger G. Barry, University of Colorado Boulder, Eileen A. Hall-McKim, University of Colorado Boulder
  • Book:
    Essentials of the Earth's Climate System
    Published online:
    28 May 2018
    Print publication:
    17 March 2014, pp 74-90

  • Summary

    So far we have talked about large-scale climatic conditions, but climate also varies considerably on local (1–10 km) and micro (1–10 m) scales. Examples of the former are seacoasts, mountains, forests, lakes, and urban areas. Examples of the latter are plant and forest canopies and urban canyons. It is important to recognize the effects of these small scales on climate because observations are made at a point and the representativeness of the location determines our ability to scale up the information to a wider region. In addition, humans experience microclimates in their everyday lives.

    Local climate

    The controls of local climate are slope orientation and angle, large-scale shelter and local winds due to topography, and surface energy and water budgets. Topographic effects give rise to what are called topoclimates that have a horizontal scale of about 1–10 km. Figure 4.1 illustrates topoclimates associated with a lake, forest, and urban area.

    The direction a slope faces has a large impact on sunshine duration and shadow, while slope orientation and angle affect the amount of solar radiation that is intercepted. These same factors are critical in the installation of solar panels on a roof. In the Northern (Southern) Hemisphere, radiation totals are largest on south (north)-facing slopes. For example, measurements in Vienna (48° N) on 20° slopes show that direct beam radiation in July ranges from 352 MJ m−2 on east/west slopes to 311 MJ m−2 on north-facing and 389 MJ m−2 on south-facing slopes, compared with 373 MJ m−2 on level ground. In December, the corresponding values are: 31, 0, 67, and 34 MJ m−2, respectively. The percentage differences are much larger in winter.

  • 9 - Climatic types on land

  • Roger G. Barry, University of Colorado Boulder, Eileen A. Hall-McKim, University of Colorado Boulder
  • Book:
    Essentials of the Earth's Climate System
    Published online:
    28 May 2018
    Print publication:
    17 March 2014, pp 145-171

  • Summary

    In this chapter we describe the major climatic types found in continental areas, especially in terms of their temperature and precipitation regimes. The distribution of these types, in the context of the Köppen classification of climates, is illustrated in Figure 1.3. We begin by discussing approaches to climatic classification. The main classifications are based on the seasonal characteristics of temperature and moisture, but more specialized ones are based on thermal comfort or agricultural conditions. There are also classifications based on the causes of climatic patterns.

    We begin by considering some of the most spatially extensive types of climate – deserts, monsoons, and high plateaus. In each case, regional differences are discussed. Then we turn to wet lowlands and move poleward through the different latitude zones to the polar regions and ice sheets of Greenland and Antarctica.

    Classifying climates

    There are many approaches to classifying climates. The earliest dates back to the Greeks, who recognized the changes of temperature with latitude. They identified torrid, temperate, and frigid zones. The primary variables that characterize a region are generally its temperature, rainfall, and, in particular, their seasonal characteristics. Essentially, temperature values can be divided into about five classes and precipitation distinguished according to its seasonal distribution (year round, summer maximum, winter maximum). This is the basis of W. Köppen’s classification referred to in Section 1.4. H. Kraus and A. Alkhalal provide budgets of Rn, LE and H over the annual cycle for ten of Köppen’s types (see Section 2.1). Another approach is to consider the moisture balance (precipitation minus evaporation) and its seasonal distribution, as proposed by C. W. Thornthwaite in the United States in 1948. Numerous authors have developed variants of these schemes – A. Miller, W. Gorcynski, and G. Trewartha, for example. Others, such as K. Buettner and W. Terjung, developed physiological classifications of thermal comfort. J. Papadakis developed an agriculturally based classification. Genetic classifications based on air mass frequencies and airstream boundaries have been proposed by W. Wendland and R. Bryson. A very thorough annotated bibliography on climatic classifications has been compiled by R. F. Strauss.

  • 8 - Land and sea effects

  • Roger G. Barry, University of Colorado Boulder, Eileen A. Hall-McKim, University of Colorado Boulder
  • Book:
    Essentials of the Earth's Climate System
    Published online:
    28 May 2018
    Print publication:
    17 March 2014, pp 127-144

  • Summary

    Climatic conditions are determined to first order by the nature of the underlying surface – whether it is land or ocean – and to second order by the presence of mountain ranges. The principal difference between land and sea lies in the penetration of solar radiation. On land almost all the incoming energy is absorbed at the surface, whereas radiation penetrates several meters into the ocean. In addition the water is in constant motion, mixing the absorbed energy. Consequently, there is almost no diurnal cycle in sea surface temperatures (SSTs), in great contrast to the case of the land surface. Mountain ranges affect weather and climate on local to global scales. Airflow is modified, clouds and precipitation are redistributed, and temperatures are changed both vertically and horizontally. We shall examine global climate through these lenses, starting with the world’s oceans.

    Oceans

    Globally, 71 percent of the Earth is covered by water, hence oceanic climates dominate the globe. The Southern Hemisphere is 81 percent water and the Northern Hemisphere 61 percent. Unlike the freshwater found in rivers, lakes, groundwater, and precipitation, the oceans are saline waters. Typical ocean salinities are between 32 and 37 parts per thousand. The surface layer is well mixed and warmer due to wave action; below this is a thermocline (vertical temperature gradient) to the deep waters that are cold. Abyssal temperatures average around 1.5–2 °C. The ocean has a mean depth of about 4000 m; the Mariana Trench in the western Pacific reaches 11 km (see Box 8A.1).

  • 10 - Expatriation and repatriation in the Asia–Pacific region

  • Edited by Mustafa F. Özbilgin, Brunel University, Dimitria Groutsis, University of Sydney, William S. Harvey, University of Exeter
  • Book:
    International Human Resource Management
    Published online:
    12 August 2019
    Print publication:
    07 March 2014, pp 179-193

  • Summary

    Learning objectives

  • To explore the theoretical and empirical issues in expatriation and repatriation in the Asia–Pacific region that inform the development and management of global mobility policy and practice.

  • To examine the contextual facilitators of, and constraints on, management of globally mobile talent in the region.

  • To critically evaluate the issues inherent in the management of global talent.

  • To show how the impact of sociopolitical, economic and cultural factors in the region can inform approaches to global talent mobility.

    • Learning outcomes

    After reading this chapter, students will be able to:

  • identify issues that affect expatriation and repatriation in the Asia–Pacific region

  • differentiate between various contextual factors that enable and constrain the mobility of global talent in the region

  • evaluate macro-, meso- and micro-level issues, tensions and contradictions associated with managing international human resources in the region

  • understand a range of approaches to global mobility, taking into account the different cultural, economic and sociopolitical environments of the region.

  • 2 - Cross-cultural and diversity management intersections: lessons for attracting and retaining international assignees

  • Edited by Mustafa F. Özbilgin, Brunel University, Dimitria Groutsis, University of Sydney, William S. Harvey, University of Exeter
  • Book:
    International Human Resource Management
    Published online:
    12 August 2019
    Print publication:
    07 March 2014, pp 23-46

  • Summary

    Learning objectives

  • To explain talent mobility in a culturally diverse global context, including issues such as attraction, retention and post-settlement adjustment.

  • To describe the layers of culture and delineate their workplace implications.

  • To explain cross-cultural management by focusing on cultural dimensions.

  • To explain cultural diversity at individual and organisational levels.

  • To demonstrate the value of employing a multilevel approach to explaining cross-cultural management and diversity management.

    • Learning outcomes

    After reading this chapter, students will be able to:

  • understand diversity management more broadly than has been presented in the literature to date

  • understand cross-cultural dimensions beyond the macro-level measures presented in the dominant literature

  • apply the insights gained from three levels of analysis: the macro (national culture), meso (organisation) and micro (individual and inter- and intragroup)

  • address the implications of cross-cultural issues and workplaces staffed by people from diverse backgrounds around the globe

  • understand how cross-cultural management and diversity management shape staffing, post-settlement adjustment and retention rates.

  • Conclusion

  • Edited by Mustafa F. Özbilgin, Brunel University, Dimitria Groutsis, University of Sydney, William S. Harvey, University of Exeter
  • Book:
    International Human Resource Management
    Published online:
    12 August 2019
    Print publication:
    07 March 2014, pp 236-243

  • Summary

    The international business context is changing rapidly, driven by international mergers, cross-border alliances and joint ventures, with consequent demands and increased competition for readily available, skilled and qualified labour to staff emergent global business needs. In such a dynamic context, the role of IHRM has grown more important and complex and yet arguably remains undervalued. This book has set out a multilevel framework for recognising, explaining and understanding the important role of HR in an international context, forming an introduction to IHRM for those new to the field.

    The contributors have shown how multiple scales of analysis are connected, through the lenses of macro-, meso- and micro-level contexts, and in doing so they have challenged the dominant approaches of the academic literature on IHRM, with its tendency to silo work into a focus on country, region, city, industry, organisation, group or individual. The bulk of the scholarship has largely neglected the role of multiple stakeholder arrangements, with the focus placed almost exclusively on IHRM processes. For example, there has been much emphasis on the context of particular countries and on the perspective of employing organisations, but this has largely neglected prominent literatures around key concepts such as ‘boundaryless careers’, the ‘war for talent’, the importance of ‘reputation’ and new labour market ‘intermediaries’. Equally, the electorates of national governments and supranational organisations continue to debate IHRM issues and, accordingly, we find their legislation surrounding the attraction and retention of foreign talent alters through changing immigration and citizenship policies. Such policies affect what types of worker can move into a country and therefore the types of worker international HR managers can access. The examples depicted throughout this book highlight that while it is valuable to understand IHRM in the context of organisations, there are other significant actors who affect and are affected by the attraction, recruitment, retention and development, performance management and reward of international assignees. Finally, the book has also demonstrated the unique regional challenges and opportunities by presenting dedicated discussions of regions and countries, particularly the Asia–Pacific, Europe, Africa and the United States.

  • Introduction: a multilevel approach to international human resource management

  • Edited by Mustafa F. Özbilgin, Brunel University, Dimitria Groutsis, University of Sydney, William S. Harvey, University of Exeter
  • Book:
    International Human Resource Management
    Published online:
    12 August 2019
    Print publication:
    07 March 2014, pp 1-5

  • Summary

    International human resource management (IHRM) is a set of management interventions and activities crafted for the effective practice of recruitment, retention, deployment, development and use of human resources in an international context. The study of IHRM requires attention to the relationships that shape the dynamics of inputs, processes and outputs of human resource management (HRM) among a set of actors at international, national, sectoral, organisational, team and individual levels. The multiplicity of key actors and complexity of relationships often complicate our understanding of how IHRM policy and practice develop. To overcome this complexity, we offer a multilevel and multidimensional approach to the study of IHRM.

    Towards a multilevel approach to IHRM

    In this book, we present a novel multilevel approach to the study of IHRM, incorporating in each chapter the macro-, meso- and micro-levels at which IHRM policy is shaped, negotiated, refined and practised.

  • 4 - Recruitment and selection in the international context

  • Edited by Mustafa F. Özbilgin, Brunel University, Dimitria Groutsis, University of Sydney, William S. Harvey, University of Exeter
  • Book:
    International Human Resource Management
    Published online:
    12 August 2019
    Print publication:
    07 March 2014, pp 67-92

  • Summary

    Learning objectives

  • To outline the specifics of recruitment and selection in the international context.

  • To describe categories of international employees.

  • To identify and explain the international recruitment and selection process.

  • To illustrate potential challenges of international selection and recruitment from the employee and company perspectives.

    • Learning outcomes

    After reading this chapter, students will be able to:

  • develop an international recruitment and selection plan for different types of multinational company

  • create a set of interview questions for an international post

  • determine a set of selection criteria for different types of international employees

  • evaluate indicators of selection and recruitment effectiveness.

    • Introduction

    Careful planning is needed to ensure that international recruitment, and selection can deploy the right candidates to international posts. Failure to do so may result in inefficient use of time, financial losses or even risk to a company’s reputation. HR managers in multinational companies (MNCs) should consider various issues when preparing for international recruitment and selection, mainly because of cultural or national differences between the country in which an MNC is headquartered (the parent country) and the countries in which they have subsidiaries (host countries). These differences affect international recruitment and selection because:

  • employment legislation varies across countries

  • the pool of job applicants for international posts is wider – MNCs can choose from parent-country nationals (PCNs), host-country nationals (HCNs) and third-country nationals (TCNs) as well as, increasingly, self-initiated expatriates (SIEs) and skilled migrants (SMs)

  • a thorough and specific job analysis for international posts is required, even if the same type of post is advertised (for instance, the competencies a manager needs in Australia might be different from those a manager needs in another cultural context)

  • needs specific to advertising international posts drive MNC selection practices, from filling a position to developing the managerial skills of existing staff (Brookfield Global Relocation Services, 2012).

  • 3 - Key players in international human resource management

  • Edited by Mustafa F. Özbilgin, Brunel University, Dimitria Groutsis, University of Sydney, William S. Harvey, University of Exeter
  • Book:
    International Human Resource Management
    Published online:
    12 August 2019
    Print publication:
    07 March 2014, pp 47-66

  • Summary

    Learning objectives

  • To offer a broad and nuanced view of international assignments, drawing on principles of diversity.

  • To challenge questions about traditional concepts in international business organisation (notably the familiar parent/subsidiary paradigm) and an exploration of complex international organisational configurations as a determinant of modern international staffing.

  • To demonstrate the complexities of international staffing in an ethnically diverse organisational context, through an in-depth, original case study.

    • Learning outcomes

    After reading this chapter, students will be able to:

  • understand the contextual determinants for international staffing

  • examine the rationale for the use of expatriates, third-country nationals, host-country nationals, biculturals and other international assignees

  • comprehend the strategic rationale for multinational companies devolving managerial authority to the ‘subsidiary’

  • examine the significance of diversity in international staffing

  • appreciate novel forms of international organisation, drawing on the concepts of the international division of labour and global value chains.

Page 1574 of 1927