Preface

This book details a fairly traditional view of articulatory phonetics, and some related aspects of phonology. Our focus throughout is on English phonetics, as English is the language of instruction, and the one with which all readers will therefore be familiar. Aspects of general phonetic theory are illustrated using examples from English, and supported by other languages where appropriate. We begin in Section 1 with a concentration on individual speech sounds, think about how sounds combine into words in Section 2, and finish in Section 3 with phenomena that occur when words are combined into longer stretches of speech.

The book is aimed at students with no prior knowledge of phonetics or linguistics; therefore, new terminology is emboldened and explained when it is first introduced. The book is suitable for first-year undergraduates studying subjects such as linguistics or speech and language therapy, and may also be used for revision by more advanced students. It would certainly be possible for students to teach themselves a good deal of phonetics using this coursebook. However, as phonetics is the study of speech, discussion with a tutor, who can demonstrate particular sounds and clarify any variant aspects of pronunciation, is sometimes recommended in the text. The book may also be used in class, with students working through the exercises either before or during contact hours. Whether used alone, with a tutor or in a class, the units should be attempted in order. Each unit builds on the last, and it is assumed that all previous units have been completed at each stage.

INTRODUCTION

The final shapes of most mechanical parts are obtained by machining operations. Bulk deformation processes, such as forging and rolling, and casting processes are mostly followed by a series of metal-removing operations to achieve parts with desired shapes, dimensions, and surface finish quality. The machining operations can be classified under two major categories: cutting and grinding processes. The cutting operations are used to remove material from the blank. The subsequent grinding operations provide a good surface finish and precision dimensions to the part. The most common cutting operations are turning, milling, and drilling followed by special operations such as boring, broaching, hobing, shaping, and form cutting. However, all metal cutting operations share the same principles of mechanics, but their geometry and kinematics may differ from each other. The mechanics of cutting and the specific analysis for a variety of machining operations and tool geometries are not widely covered in this text. Instead, a brief introduction to the fundamentals of cutting mechanics and a comprehensive discussion of the mechanics of milling operations are presented. Readers are referred to established metal cutting texts authored by Armarego and Brown [25], Shaw [96], and Oxley [83] for detailed treatment of the machining processes.

MECHANICS OF ORTHOGONAL CUTTING

Although the most common cutting operations are three-dimensional and geometrically complex, the simple case of two-dimensional orthogonal cutting is used to explain the general mechanics of metal removal.

INTRODUCTION

Numerically controlled (NC)machine tools were developed to fulfill the contourmachining requirements of complex aircraft parts and forming dies. The first NC machine tool was developed by Parsons Company and MIT in 1952 [63]. The first-generation NC units used digital electronic circuits and did not contain any actual central processing unit; therefore, they were called NC or hardwired NC machine tools. In the 1970s, computer numerically controlled (CNC) machine tools were developed with minicomputers used as control units. With the advances in electronics and computer technology, current CNC systems use several high-performance microprocessors and programmable logical controllers that work in a parallel and coordinated fashion. Current CNC systems allow simultaneous servoposition and velocity control of all the axis monitoring of controller and machine tool performance, online part programming with graphical assistance, in-process cutting processmonitoring, and in-process part gauging for completely unmanned machining operations. Manufacturers offer most of these features as options.

COMPUTER NUMERICALLY CONTROLLED UNIT

A typical CNC machine tool has three fundamental units: the mechanical machine tool unit, power units (motors and power amplifiers), and the CNC unit. Here, a brief introduction of a CNC system from the user's point of view is presented.

Organization of a CNC Unit

A CNC unit of a machine tool consists of one or more central processing units (CPUs), input/output devices, operator interface devices, and programmable logical controllers.

INTRODUCTION

The first step in automating machining systems was the introduction of computer numerically controlled (CNC) machine tools. The primary function of CNC is to automatically execute a sequence of multiaxis motions according to a part geometry. However, safe, optimal, and accurate machining processes are generally planned by manufacturing engineers based on their experience and understanding of the process. It is difficult to predict vibration, tool wear and breakage, thermal deformation of the machine tools, and similar process-based events by using off-line theoretical models. In addition to engineering the process plans before actual machining, the machine tools are instrumented with vibration, temperature, displacement, force, vision, and laser sensors to improve the productivity and reliability of the cutting operations on-line. The sensors must have reliable frequency bandwidth, have a good signal-to-noise ratio, and provide signals with reliable correlation to the state of the process. They must also be practical for installation on machine tools. The measured sensor signals are processed by real-time monitoring and control algorithms, and the corrective actions are taken by the CNC accordingly. The corrective actions may be manipulation of spindle speed, feed, tool offsets, compensation of machine tool positions, feed stop, and tool change depending on the process monitoring and control application. Such a sensor-assisted cutting is called intelligent machining in the literature [16, 17]. The architecture of CNC must be organized in such a way that it allows real-time manipulation of the machine tool's operating conditions.

Metal cutting is one of the most widely used manufacturing processes to produce the final shape of products, and its technology continues to advance in parallel with developments in materials, computers, sensors, and actuators. A blank is converted into a final product by cutting extra material away by turning, drilling, milling, broaching, boring, and grinding operations conducted on computer numerically controlled (CNC) machine tools. The second edition of this book helps students and engineers understand the scientific principles of metal cutting technology and the practical application of engineering principles to solving problems encountered in manufacturing shops. The book reflects the author's industrial and research experience, and his manufacturing engineering philosophy as well.

Engineers can learn best by being shown how to apply the fundamentals of physics to actual machines and processes that they can feel and visualize. Mathematics, physics, computers, algorithms, and instrumentation then become useful integration tools in analyzing or designing machine tools and machining processes.

Metal cutting operations take place between a cutting tool and workpiece material mounted on a machine tool. The motion of the machine tool is controlled by its CNC unit, and the numerically controlled (NC) commands to CNC are generated on computer-aided design/computer-aided manufacturing (CAD/CAM) systems. The productivity and accuracy of themetal removal operation depend on the preparation of NC programs, planning of machining process parameters and cutting conditions, cutter geometry, work and tool materials, machine tool rigidity, and performance of the CNC unit.

INTRODUCTION

Machine tools are called machine making machines. Various machining and forming operations are executed by a variety of machine tools to produce mechanical parts. To maintain specified tolerances, the machine tools must have greater accuracy than the tolerances of the manufactured parts. The precision of a machine tool is affected by the positioning accuracy of the cutting tool with respect to the workpiece and the relative structural deformations between them. The engineering analysis and modeling of relative static and dynamic deformations between the cutting tool and workpiece are covered in this chapter.

MACHINE TOOL STRUCTURES

A machine tool system has three main groups of parts: mechanical structures, drives, and controls. The components can be observed from the horizontal computer numerically controlled (CNC) machining center shown in Figure 3.1.

Mechanical Structure

The structure consists of stationary and moving bodies. The stationary bodies include beds, columns, bridges, and gear box housings. They usually carry moving bodies, such as tables, slides, spindles, gears, bearings, and carriages. The structural design of machine tool parts requires high rigidity, thermal stability, and damping. In general, the dimensions of machine tools are overestimated to minimize static and dynamic deformations during machining. The general design of machine tool structures will not be covered in this text. Instead, it is assumed that the relative static and dynamic compliance between the tool and the workpiece is measured experimentally or predicted with analytical methods.

INTRODUCTION

A diagram of a typical three-axis computer numerically controlled (CNC) machining center is shown in Figure 6.1. The CNC machining center consists of mechanical, power electronic, and CNC units. The mechanical unit consists of beds, columns, spindle assembly, and feed drive mechanisms. Spindle and feed drive motors and their servoamplifiers, high-voltage power supply unit, and limit switches are part of the power electronics group. The CNC consists of a computer unit and position and velocity sensors for each drive mechanism. The operator enters the numerically controlled (NC) program to the CNC unit. The CNC computer processes the data and generates discrete numerical position commands for each feed drive and velocity command for the spindle drive. The numerical commands are converted into signal voltage (±5V or ±10 V) and sent to servoamplifiers of analog drives, or sent numerically to digital drives that process and amplify them to the high-voltage levels required by the motors. As the drives move, sensors measure their velocity and position. The CNC periodically executes digital control laws at fixed sampling intervals that maintain the feed speed and tool path at programmed rates by using sensor feedback measurements.

The fundamental principles of designing CNC systems are covered in this chapter. First, the sizing and selection of drive motors are presented, followed by physical structure and modeling of a servodrive control system. The mathematical modeling and analysis of drive systems are covered both in the time and frequency domain.