This chapter provides an overview of the legal framework and procedural requirements for establishing a new company within the European Union. It covers the harmonized rules under EU company law directives, including formation, registration and capital requirements. The chapter highlights the role of national laws and the impact of EU principles such as freedom of establishment and non-discrimination. Practical aspects like documentation, timelines and costs are discussed to assist businesses and legal practitioners. Emphasis is placed on the challenges and opportunities in cross-border company formation, reflecting the EU’s aim to facilitate entrepreneurship and economic integration.

This chapter first introduces the concepts of morphology and morpheme, then discusses the different types of morphemes—free and bound, content and function—and also introduces and compares the notions of morpheme versatility and productivity. Further, it differentiates the overlapping but distinct units of syllables, morphemes, zì (characters), and words in the context of Chinese. Major types of word formation in Mandarin Chinese are described, including compounding, reduplication and affixation.

This chapter introduces the basics of articulatory phonetics, including place and manner of articulation, voicing, and aspiration, along with the terminology and International Phonetic Alphabet symbols used to describe language sounds. The sounds of Modern Standard Chinese are described and symbolized, along with the tripartite analysis of Chinese syllables into initial, final, and tone. Phonology is introduced first with a discussion of tonal phonology and syllable structure, following by the introduction of the concept of phoneme.

This chapter examines the development of uniform company law within the EU, focusing on supranational company forms such as the Societas Europaea (SE) and the Societas Cooperativa Europaea (SCE). It explores the legal framework governing their formation, structure and operation, highlighting the balance between EU regulation and national company laws. The chapter assesses the goals of legal harmonization, cross-border mobility and enhanced corporate flexibility. It also considers the practical challenges and limited uptake of these forms, along with their potential in promoting European economic integration. Comparative insights and recent legislative developments are discussed to evaluate future prospects for uniform company law.

This chapter provides an overview of corporate governance within the European Union, focusing on the regulatory framework that shapes board structures, shareholder rights and stakeholder engagement. It analyses key EU directives, codes and case law that promote transparency, accountability and sustainable business practices. The chapter explores challenges in harmonizing governance standards across diverse legal systems and the role of corporate governance in enhancing investor confidence and long-term value creation. Additionally, it discusses recent developments addressing environmental, social and governance (ESG) criteria, emphasizing the evolving nature of corporate responsibility in the EU context.

This chapter focuses on larger syntactic units, primarily sentences. It first discusses major sentence types in Mandarin (simple vs. complex sentences). Then it describes four types of sentences based on communicative functions, and the modal particles which are attached to different types of sentences. The chapter also describes the syntactic, semantic and discourse features of the bǎ and bèi constructions, and their socio-pragmatic functions.

This chapter explores the European Union’s ongoing efforts to simplify and modernize company law to enhance legal clarity, reduce administrative burdens and support cross-border business activity. It examines key initiatives such as the Company Law Package, digitalization of company processes and the reduction of formalities for corporate operations. The chapter evaluates how these reforms aim to improve competitiveness, foster innovation and align company law with the needs of modern businesses. Challenges related to implementation, legal coherence and Member State diversity are also discussed. Overall, the chapter highlights the shift towards a more efficient, accessible and future-oriented company law framework in the EU.

This chapter analyses the EU framework governing takeovers, focusing on the Takeover Directive designed to ensure fair treatment of shareholders and transparency during public acquisition bids. It examines key principles such as mandatory bid rules, disclosure obligations and protection of minority shareholders. The chapter explores the challenges of harmonizing takeover regulations across diverse Member States and balancing market efficiency with investor protection. By reviewing case law and national implementations, it highlights recent reforms and their impact on corporate control dynamics within the EU. The discussion underscores the role of takeover regulation in fostering competitive, transparent and integrated European capital markets.

This chapter explores the definition of Chinese and introduces the field of linguistics and its key sub-disciplines, the two fundamental concepts that set the stage for a study of Chinese linguistics. Chinese is then situated in its geographic and linguistic landscape, elucidating its genetic and contact relationships. The history behind the establishment of Modern Standard Chinese is presented, along with some of its linguistic features. The chapter concludes with a preview of the contents of the rest of the textbook.