A coherent introduction to generative syntax by a leader in the field, this textbook leads students through the theory from the very beginning, assuming no prior knowledge. Introducing the central concepts in a systematic and engaging way, it covers the goals of generative grammar, tacit native-speaker knowledge, categories and constituents, phrase structure, movement, binding, syntax beyond English and the architecture of grammar. The theory is built slowly, showing in a step-by-step fashion how different versions of generative theory relate to one another. Examples are carefully chosen to be easily understood, and a comprehensive glossary provides clear definitions of all the key terms introduced. With end of chapter exercises, broader discussion questions, and annotated further reading lists. Beginning Syntax is the ideal resource for instructors and beginning undergraduate students of syntax alike. Two further textbooks by Ian Roberts, Continuing Syntax and Comparing Syntax, will take students to intermediate and advanced level.

This chapter provides a historical overview of the evolution of European cooperation. It first sketches the historical background to several initiatives for international cooperation after the Second World War. It then discusses the way the EU evolved from the initial founding of the European Coal and Steel Community into what is now the European Union. In doing so it looks at the evolution of its policies, institutions and membership over the decades and highlights major international events and crises that affected developments. The chapter shows that the process of bringing the European countries together was long and winding with many fits and starts. Periods of rapid change and innovation have alternated with long stretches of gridlock and stalemate. The process was often erratic because of fundamentally different views on the nature, pace and scope of integration. While the term ‘European Union’ suggests that the organization was swiftly put in place on the basis of a solid design, the EU in essence is a patchwork that has been stitched together in a step-by-step fashion over the course of seven decades.

This chapter discusses the role of interest groups and lobbying in the EU. It starts by giving an overview of the number and types of interest groups active at the EU level and the different channels through which they try to exert influence. The system of interest representation in the EU is then analysed in terms of corporatism and pluralism, arguing that overall it is best characterized as a form of ’designed pluralism’. The strategies that interest groups use to influence policy-making are discussed in terms of inside and outside lobbying. Because of the way the EU’s political system works, inside lobbying is a much more common strategy at the EU level than outside lobbying. Although it is difficult to make an overall assessment of interest group influence, the impact that specific groups have depends crucially on the resources they command, the way the decision-making process is organized and the type of issue at stake. The chapter ends with a discussion of the relationship between lobbying and democracy, arguing that whether or not lobbying helps or is a threat to democracy depends on the balance between interest groups and the way in which lobbying takes place.

In this chapter, we revisit one of the classical topics of atmospheric dynamics: the maintenance of the zonal mean zonal flow $\left[u\right]$ relative to the rotating Earth.

This chapter takes a closer look at the process in which issues are identified as requiring attention and the problems associated with them are defined (that is, agenda-setting) in the EU. It shows that agenda-setting is a highly political process because it has important consequences for the issues on which decisions are taken and the policy options that are considered. As a result, political actors actively try to bring issues on to the EU agenda or keep them off that agenda. The process through which issues come on to the EU agenda is complex and largely informal. Nevertheless, it is not purely random or idiosyncratic. Common elements and drivers can be discerned in many agenda-setting processes. The chapter identifies certain (combinations of) motives that explain why actors try to place an issue on the EU agenda. It also shows the ‘typical’ sequence of steps that are taken in EU agenda-setting processes, albeit with variations in specific cases. Finally, it discusses the factors that determine whether or not an issue will actually make it onto the EU agenda.

A coherent introduction to generative syntax by a leader in the field, this textbook leads students through the theory from the very beginning, assuming no prior knowledge. Introducing the central concepts in a systematic and engaging way, it covers the goals of generative grammar, tacit native-speaker knowledge, categories and constituents, phrase structure, movement, binding, syntax beyond English and the architecture of grammar. The theory is built slowly, showing in a step-by-step fashion how different versions of generative theory relate to one another. Examples are carefully chosen to be easily understood, and a comprehensive glossary provides clear definitions of all the key terms introduced. With end of chapter exercises, broader discussion questions, and annotated further reading lists. Beginning Syntax is the ideal resource for instructors and beginning undergraduate students of syntax alike. Two further textbooks by Ian Roberts, Continuing Syntax and Comparing Syntax, will take students to intermediate and advanced level.

On a rotating planet, the zonally symmetric zonal wind and temperature fields are in thermal wind balance. By applying this dynamical constraint, it is possible to go beyond the consistency arguments for steady state balances in Eqs. (3.21) and (5.20) and deduce how the flow will evolve in response to specified, time varying distributions of diabatic heating rate, frictional drag, and the eddy transports of zonal momentum and heat. In this zonally averaged version of the primitive equations, which dates back to Eliassen,1 the mean meridional circulations play a critical role in enforcing the constraint that the zonal wind and temperature fields remain in thermal wind balance as the flow evolves.

This chapter discusses the implementation of EU policies after they have been adopted. It is structured around three phases in the implementation process: legal implementation, practical implementation and monitoring implementation. Each of these phases takes place both at the EU-level and within member states, leading to a system of multi-level administration. Subsequent sections zoom in on each of the three phases. In relation to legal implementation, both transposition by member states and the adoption of delegated and implementing acts by the Commission are discussed, including the system of comitology. The section on practical implementation looks at areas in which EU institutions are the main implementers and discusses the general EU requirements for implementation by member states. The section on monitoring implementation includes an extensive discussion of (the procedural set-up and practical use of) the infringement procedure and preliminary rulings. The chapter ends with a discussion of the role of EU agencies and European regulatory networks in the implementation of EU policies, stressing the variation within and commonalities between these two types of structure.

In Chapter 1, we presented a survey of the general circulation encompassing both Northern and Southern Hemispheres and winter and summer seasons. In this chapter, we focus on the Northern Hemisphere winter season DJF, which arguably exhibits the most distinctive patterns in terms of zonally varying jets, storm tracks, and climatological‐mean stationary waves.

This chapter documents and offers a dynamical interpretation of the annual mean tropical circulation. It is made up of six sections. The first documents the patterns of rain rate, vertical velocity, and low cloud coverage. The second and third document and interpret the upper and lower tropospheric circulations in terms of equatorially trapped planetary waves introduced in Chapter 10 and relate them to the observed rain rate distribution.

A coherent introduction to generative syntax by a leader in the field, this textbook leads students through the theory from the very beginning, assuming no prior knowledge. Introducing the central concepts in a systematic and engaging way, it covers the goals of generative grammar, tacit native-speaker knowledge, categories and constituents, phrase structure, movement, binding, syntax beyond English and the architecture of grammar. The theory is built slowly, showing in a step-by-step fashion how different versions of generative theory relate to one another. Examples are carefully chosen to be easily understood, and a comprehensive glossary provides clear definitions of all the key terms introduced. With end of chapter exercises, broader discussion questions, and annotated further reading lists. Beginning Syntax is the ideal resource for instructors and beginning undergraduate students of syntax alike. Two further textbooks by Ian Roberts, Continuing Syntax and Comparing Syntax, will take students to intermediate and advanced level.

In this chapter, we consider the leading mode of year‐to‐year climate variability, the El Niño–Southern Oscillation phenomenon, widely referred to as ENSO. El Niño connotes the episodic weakening of the equatorial Pacific SST cold tongue.1 Southern Oscillation refers to a “seesaw” in sea‐level pressure (SLP) between the eastern and western ends of the tropical Pacific Ocean.

A coherent introduction to generative syntax by a leader in the field, this textbook leads students through the theory from the very beginning, assuming no prior knowledge. Introducing the central concepts in a systematic and engaging way, it covers the goals of generative grammar, tacit native-speaker knowledge, categories and constituents, phrase structure, movement, binding, syntax beyond English and the architecture of grammar. The theory is built slowly, showing in a step-by-step fashion how different versions of generative theory relate to one another. Examples are carefully chosen to be easily understood, and a comprehensive glossary provides clear definitions of all the key terms introduced. With end of chapter exercises, broader discussion questions, and annotated further reading lists. Beginning Syntax is the ideal resource for instructors and beginning undergraduate students of syntax alike. Two further textbooks by Ian Roberts, Continuing Syntax and Comparing Syntax, will take students to intermediate and advanced level.