A coherent introduction to generative syntax by a leader in the field, this textbook leads students through the theory from the very beginning, assuming no prior knowledge. Introducing the central concepts in a systematic and engaging way, it covers the goals of generative grammar, tacit native-speaker knowledge, categories and constituents, phrase structure, movement, binding, syntax beyond English and the architecture of grammar. The theory is built slowly, showing in a step-by-step fashion how different versions of generative theory relate to one another. Examples are carefully chosen to be easily understood, and a comprehensive glossary provides clear definitions of all the key terms introduced. With end of chapter exercises, broader discussion questions, and annotated further reading lists. Beginning Syntax is the ideal resource for instructors and beginning undergraduate students of syntax alike. Two further textbooks by Ian Roberts, Continuing Syntax and Comparing Syntax, will take students to intermediate and advanced level.

The last two chapters were devoted to the seasonal cycle in the tropical general circulation and to ENSO‐related interannual variability. In this chapter, we consider the variability on the intraseasonal timescale, defined here as fluctuations with periods ranging from 20 to 90 days (or frequencies ranging from 1 to 5 cycles per season).

The total energy per unit mass of an air parcel is the sum of its internal, potential, and kinetic energy. It can be shown (see Exercise 6.1) that integrated over a column of unit area, the sum of the potential $P$ plus internal $I$ energy is given by $P+I=\int c_{p}Tdp$.

The governing equations for the tropical and extratropical general circulations differ in two respects: one relating to the relative importance of the terms in the horizontal equation of motion and the other to the terms in the thermodynamic energy equation. The extratropics are nearly in geostrophic balance.

The first studies of the mass balance of atmospheric trace constituents were focused on water vapor. The earliest of these studies were motivated by the fact that the release of latent heat of condensation in precipitation is an important heat source in the global energy budget, the subject of Chapter 5. These early studies also provided new insights into the hydrologic cycle, particularly over land, and were helpful in explaining the observed salinity distribution in the ocean.

Part I consists of two chapters. The first describes the observational basis for general circulation, documents its salient features, and introduces the reader to the kinds of models that are being used to simulate it.

This chapter reflects upon the functioning of the EU and the way it can be evaluated by using the comparative politics approach. Recent crises have increased the EU’s involvement in many policy areas, begging questions as to where the EU now stands as a political organization. Moreover, the greater involvement of the EU in policymaking also brings to the fore important questions about the democratic quality of the EU. The chapter first highlights the hybrid nature of the EU, combining features of an international organization with those of a state. It next discusses the debate about the democratic deficit, concerning the extent to which citizens can determine the EU’s policies and keep the EU accountable. The chapter subsequently discusses the rule of law crisis and the commitment of all EU member states to safeguard fundamental rights and values common to all the EU member states and enumerated in the Treaties. Concerns about democratic backsliding in some EU member states have resulted in procedures against member states to address the risk of breaching these values. As these procedures are highly political, tackling such breaches in this way is fraught with difficulties.

When plotted as partial zonal averages in Fig. 16.1, the seasonality of the zonal mean circulation in the eastern and western hemispheres of the tropics is quite different. In the eastern hemisphere (from the Greenwich Meridian eastward to the Date Line), the zonal mean circulation is dominated by the seasonally reversing Australasian monsoon, which is strong and nearly synchronous with the annual cycle in the meridional profile of insolation. In contrast, in the western hemisphere, the seasonality is not as pronounced and the annual cycle is lagged by about two months relative to the solstices.

A coherent introduction to generative syntax by a leader in the field, this textbook leads students through the theory from the very beginning, assuming no prior knowledge. Introducing the central concepts in a systematic and engaging way, it covers the goals of generative grammar, tacit native-speaker knowledge, categories and constituents, phrase structure, movement, binding, syntax beyond English and the architecture of grammar. The theory is built slowly, showing in a step-by-step fashion how different versions of generative theory relate to one another. Examples are carefully chosen to be easily understood, and a comprehensive glossary provides clear definitions of all the key terms introduced. With end of chapter exercises, broader discussion questions, and annotated further reading lists. Beginning Syntax is the ideal resource for instructors and beginning undergraduate students of syntax alike. Two further textbooks by Ian Roberts, Continuing Syntax and Comparing Syntax, will take students to intermediate and advanced level.

The tropical atmosphere encompasses the latitude belt equatorward of the subtropical anticyclones at the Earth’s surface and the tropospheric jet streams at the tropopause level. As shown in Section 2.6.1, the meridional extent of the tropics decreases with increasing rotation rate.

This chapter outlines what types of decision the EU takes and how these decisions are adopted. This includes explanations of the Ordinary Legislative Procedure, special legislative procedures and the Open Method of Coordination, as well as the role of informal trilogues, the way qualified majority voting in the Council works and the subsidiarity check by national parliaments. In addition, the chapter discusses the role of differentiated integration in EU decision-making. Throughout the text, the chapter highlights the rationales behind different forms of EU decision-making. It argues that the EU’s decision-making procedures seek to find a balance between competing objectives: fostering EU-wide approaches to issues, protecting the sovereignty of its member states and installing an element of democracy in the way decisions are made. If one understands the logic behind this balancing act, the complex and diverse world of legal instruments and decision-making procedures in the EU becomes much easier to navigate.