Chapter 7 discusses how language and computer use interact and some of the problems that can occur when relying on natural language processing and machine learning. We discuss some of the benefits and challenges of automatic parsing, how algorithms are applied and can alter what gets shown in searches, and more. We provide several examples of AI generation gone wrong and encourage caution when using large language models, but also how knowledge about linguistics and how language works can inform our own use of language-based technology.

You will have seen that a significant part of legal reasoning is linked to interpretation, and that the law plays an important part in shaping the rules of interpretation. This is especially true in the interpretation of legislation, which forms most of the conceptual terrain in which contemporary criminal law is located. This chapter introduces some of the core concepts linked to statutory interpretation principles applicable to the criminal law. Please note that this is by no means a comprehensive review but serves as an introductory overview.

Wage theft and compensation contract failures undermine fair pay practices. This chapter explores how employers may intentionally or unintentionally violate compensation agreements, leading to legal and ethical challenges. It discusses wage noncompliance, underpayment issues, and enforcement mechanisms. The chapter also introduces risk premiums and how employees factor in potential wage theft when negotiating salaries. By understanding these issues, managers can create policies that ensure compliance and build trust with employees.

Law is an applied and theoretical discipline. To that end, the law must be applied to the facts available when assessing the alignment of the facts with the law. In this respect law is an empirical discipline, one that requires objective fact and law in association with one another in its application. Evidence must exist to establish fact, while law must exist to establish the rule structure. The relationship between law and evidence is unique, for it is not simply the existence of objectively present objects that will establish the fact – the fact in law is subject to further legal construction through the laws of evidence. One aspect of that process is an object or event that has actual existence may not, as a matter of law, be available to the decision maker because of legal invalidity. Hence the empirical foundations of law are based on admissible evidence rather than mere evidence. This will be considered in more detail in Chapter 3.

Extra Help gives you the logic behind the noun endings, vastly reducing the number of endings you need to learn. Extra Material introduces some of the different jobs that the Greek genitive case can do.

In the Extra Help we invite you to think about ‘reading Greek with understanding’ rather than translating. In the Extra Material you will meet the major contexts in which the accusative case can appear.

This chapter covers all forms of neuronal communication, from neuron-to-neuron signaling to communication with the body and external world. It begins with an overview of electrophysiology, focusing on how action potentials and ion channels drive electrical signaling in neurons. It then explains neurotransmission, detailing how neurotransmitters are synthesized, released, and regulated through processes like reuptake and degradation. The chapter then expands upon the concept of neuronal communication to include how neurons control body functions, such as muscle movement and hormone release, and how they process sensory input like light, sound, and touch through specialized receptors. Finally, the chapter incorporates plasticity, describing how neuronal communication affects synaptic restructuring via processes like long-term potentiation.

This chapter summarises what Part I has introduced, reinforcing things that the reader might already have known but whose importance needs a reminder. Additionally however it summarises the point of view (perhaps novel for the reader) that Part I has introduced and emphasises that we do not think about “what happens”, for example inside the boxes of a flowchart, but instead about “what is true” and should be written on the flowchart lines between its boxes.

In this chapter, we will examine the Old Testament’s role in religious communities as an authoritative revelation from God – the concept of “scripture” common to the three monotheistic religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. These texts hardly began as the books that now comprise the Bible; rather, what we will discover is a lengthy, complex development of authoritative texts from oral to written to canon.

This chapter will take us inside the ancient world of the Old Testament’s formation. Words, considered powerful, were painstakingly preserved through centuries in the hands of anonymous authors and editors, scribes and scholars. Texts were collected into books and went through a process of use and standardization by the ancient Israelites, beginning as early as the tenth century bceand lasting through the Babylonian exile and beyond – emerging finally in the canonical form we know today as the Old Testament.