This chapter focuses on how sounds can shift when they occur in particular environments. It introduces key concepts from the field of phonology, such as phonemes and allophones, and demonstrates how sounds commonly change during speech production. The major types of sound shifts discussed in this chapter include assimilation, deletion, insertion, and dissimilation. By the end of the chapter, you will be asked to apply phonological rules to a small data set and create a set of potential phonological shifts you can incorporate into your language.

In this chapter, differences between quantitative and qualitative studies are presented. Students are taught the basic skills for performing a qualitative study, such as performing interviews, observations, and researching material culture. Methods for analyzing these qualitative data such as finding themes and creating concept maps are discussed. Students are encouraged to use qualitative analytical methods with a quantitative study (i.e., a mixed-methods approach) to help create a richer, more detailed study.

This chapter introduces phonotactics, which includes syllable structure and stress assignment. These features work together to create the overall aesthetic feel of a language, which is, perhaps, the most noticeable and salient feature of a spoken language. By the end of the chapter, you will make decisions about how the sounds of your language will come together to form syllables and how stress is assigned within words.

This chapter focuses on the role of institutions in shaping economic efficiency and development throughout European history. It argues that institutional innovations have been central to Europe’s long-term economic progress, even though inefficient institutions have sometimes persisted due to vested interests. We first discuss what is considered a development-friendly institutional setup, and then analyse relevant historical institutions such as serfdom, open fields, guilds, cooperatives, the modern business firm and socialist central planning to understand their specific (in)efficiency contributions and distributional consequences.

This chapter analyses the relationship between population growth and resource constraints in European history, focusing on the Malthusian theory, which posits that population growth leads to stagnation due to finite resources. The chapter challenges this view by examining how technological innovations, agricultural improvements and changes in fertility strategies affected population dynamics. It explores how societies adapted to resource constraints and avoided the Malthusian trap through mechanisms such as the demographic transition. The chapter also uses case studies such as the decline of the Roman Empire to discuss the relevance of simple models for interpreting historical processes and presents nuanced insights into the complex interplay between population, resources and economic development.

In previous chapters, student researchers were guided through the creation of basic graphs and charts to help visualize results. In this chapter, Mayer’s principals of multimedia learning are reviewed as they pertain to presenting information using graphics. Readers are brought through best practices with how to visually display information and facilitate an accurate transfer of meaning. Students are shown how to modify the charts and graphs that were presented in previous chapters are reviewed with step-by-step instructions in SPSS and R. Additionally, students are taught how to create more detailed charts in R.

This chapter discusses techniques to build predictive models from data and to quantify the uncertainty of the model parameters and of the model predictions. The chapter discusses important concepts of linear and nonlinear regression and focuses on a couple of major paradigms used for estimation: maximum likelihood and Bayesian estimation. The chapter also discusses how to incorporate prior knowledge in the estimation process.

The formative years of life provide the most important elements to equip children with the capacity to learn. Therefore, underpinnings for art pedagogy for Australian First Nations early childhood education should ensure that educators and teachers may contribute environmental foundations for children’s learning while ensuring that children have effective resources to prepare them for an ever-changing world. The challenge is balancing the expectations of the home with the expectations of teaching and learning in early childhood educational settings.

A company is a legal entity, distinct from its creators, members, directors and managers. Chapter 3 of this book discusses the separate legal status of the company in detail. For the purposes of this current chapter, we emphasise that for a company to come into existence there must be a conferral of that status by the state. Unlike some other forms of association, such as a partnership, it is not legally effective for a group of people to simply declare themselves to be a company. A company is a type of corporation. The corporate status of a company is brought into existence through a process of registration under the Corporations Act. Other types of corporate entities are created by different legislative mechanisms, and we briefly describe some of these later in this chapter.

This chapter describes the range of basic company structures available under the Corporations Act, focusing on three ways in which companies can be categorised: their proprietary or public status; how they structure the liability of their members; and their relationship to other companies. The chapter examines the role of corporate groups, as well as the difference between closely-held, one-person, and widely-held companies.