Chapter 8 focuses on faults by reviewing terminology, describing faults at the outcrop and crustal scales, building a canonical model for faulting, and discussing relationships between earthquakes and faults. We begin with conventional fault terminology, and then offer detailed descriptions of faults in granite and in sandstone at the outcrop scale. At the crustal scale we describe four sets of normal faults at Chimney Rock, UT; curved thrust faults in the Elk Hills oil field, CA; seismically active strike-slip faults in the Imperial Valley, CA; and the association of faults and folds in the Western Grand Canyon. The canonical model for an idealized fault provides the basis for exploring the mechanics of faulting using the displacement field and stress field due to fault slip in a linear elastic rock mass. Then, we review the kinematics of faulting using the small strain and small rotation fields. Finally, we define earthquake moment and magnitude, along with slip rate and rupture tip velocity, and investigate rock melted by frictional heating using data from the Sierra Nevada, CA.

In this chapter we describe the laboratory and field observations that provide conceptual models for flow of viscous liquids and viscoelastic solids. We review laboratory and field methods for measuring the apparent viscosity of liquid and solid rock under a variety of temperature and pressure conditions. We also describe the ideal behavior of a linear (Newtonian) viscous liquid and show that measured behaviors approximate idealized behaviors under some conditions. We formalize the relationship between strain rate and stress in a solid-state flow law, discuss the concept of pressure in viscous liquids, and explore the nature of the stress state during flow. After introducing the constitutive equations that link stress to rate of deformation, we develop the equations of motion for viscous flow. Next, we derive the scaling relations that define the transition from laminar flow to turbulent flow and use them to classify flow regimes. Finally, we present a solution to the equations of motion and apply it to flow in a sill.

Before fitting a model, though, it is a good idea to understand where your numbers are coming from. The present chapter demonstrates through examples how to use graphical tools to explore and understand data and measurements.

The canonical ensemble describes systems which can exchange energy with their surroundings, which may be modelled as a heat bath.The statistical mechanical quantity that characterizes systems in the canonical ensemble is the partition function, which is shown to be related to the Helmholtz free energy.The connections between statistical mechanics and the laws of thermodynamics are discussed.The application of the canonical ensemble is illustrated through a variety of examples: two-level systems, the quantum and classical simple harmonic oscillator, rigid rotors and a particle in a box.The differences in the statistical properties of distinguishable and indistinguishable particles are considered and used to derive the thermodynamic properties of ideal and non-ideal gases, including the ideal gas equation, the Sackur--Tetrode equation and the Van der Waals equation.The chapter concludes with a discussion of the equipartition theorem and its application to the Dulong--Petit Law.

Chapter 1 provides background about key vocabulary concepts that will be important throughout the book. This includes issues concerning meaning, collocation, morphological knowledge, and frequency. It discusses different categories of vocabulary, and then explores how much vocabulary is necessary to operate in English.

There are no restrictions on how many bosons can occupy a single particle state, which has important consequences for their thermodynamic behaviour.Photons, quanta of the electromagnetic field, can be viewed as bosons with zero chemical potential, which allows the derivation of the thermodynamic properties of blackbody radiation, including the Stefan--Boltzmann Law.Non-interacting bosons with non-zero chemical potential can exhibit Bose--Einstein condensation at low temperatures, and interacting bosons may form a superfluid state.Low energy excitations in materials -- lattice vibrations (phonons) and spin waves (magnons) -- also behave as bosons, and are important for understanding the specific heat of materials at low temperatures.Of particular note is the Debye model which gives a simple account of the contributions of phonons to specific heat.