Sometimes the simplest forms are the most difficult to explain. Perhaps the reason for this is that one estimates the problems involved as being too simple, too obvious, and does not seek, therefore, to penetrate to their core. Besides, there is an aura of the primitive and underivative about a literary form we are used to considering as popular; we hardly dare profane it by dry, objective analysis. As the tradition of a community, it shares the anonymity of the latter. Seeking the traces of creative and tradition-conscious personages, we find only an amorphous mass of the unknown. No wonder that the riddle has been relegated back to prehistoric times, permitting us to conceal its problems behind a veil of mystery.

When a new method of scientific study comes to the fore in any field, its raison d’être can be explained only in relation to previous research. We shall try, then, to assess the value of nineteenth-century contributions to the knowledge of pagan religion among the Germanic peoples. At a first glance their value seems hardly to justify the tireless efforts of the illustrious scholars who devoted themselves to the task. The failure of so much scientific endeavor is no longer surprising, however, when we recall the character of that era. Opposing the bold and often fanciful syntheses of Romanticism, the nineteenth century advocated a rigorous analysis of the mythological tradition; it wanted first of all to discover what was authentic material in a confused mass of texts emanating from a period that was at once backward and colored by a long Christian tradition. A close examination, largely philological in nature, seemed to reveal that most of the myths and legends conserved in the rich literature of the Eddas consisted of mere fables or simple popular tales embellished with names of gods by adapting hands little concerned with the old pagan traditions.

The people of Iceland enriched the literature of the Middle Ages with a genre of epic prose that is found nowhere else in Europe. It takes the form of narratives depicting people and events belonging to a period of about one century, which begins in 930 and extends up to 1030. The Icelandic people had established themselves along the entire shore of the deserted island, and the settlers had divided among themselves the arable soil. During the first hundred years the population, composed of wealthy landowners who had left their native soil of Norway, bold adventurers and Vikings, tired of their unstable life of pillage, were looking for the stability that would be conducive to a permanent and ordered society. The settlers were rude, ambitious and avid for power; hence there were many instances of embittered and sometimes bloody clashes. This period abounds in personalities of great stature, fighting for their real or usurped claims. It can well be described as a heroic period, which gave men the opportunity to utilize all of their physical and mental faculties. Later on, in the thirteenth century, when the people of Iceland attempted to revive the memory of their ancestors from the earliest years of the country's history, their conception of them was magnified by the admiration of a generation of men who believed themselves to be the epigones of true heros.

Photosynthesis, the ability to fix atmospheric carbon dioxide, was acquired by eukaryotes through symbiosis: the plastids of plants and algae resulted from a cyanobacterial symbiosis that commenced more than 1.5 billion years ago and has chartered a unique evolutionary path. This resulted in the evolutionary origin of plants and algae. Some extant land plants have recruited additional biochemical aid from symbiotic cyanobacteria; these plants associate with filamentous cyanobacteria that fix atmospheric nitrogen. Examples of such interactions can be found in select species from across all major lineages of land plants. The recent rise in genomic and transcriptomic data has provided new insights into the molecular foundation of these interactions. Furthermore, the hornwort Anthoceros has emerged as a model system for the molecular biology of cyanobacteria–plant interactions. Here, we review these developments driven by high-throughput data and pinpoint their power to yield general patterns across these diverse symbioses.

Third-generation long-read sequencing is transforming plant genomics. Oxford Nanopore Technologies and Pacific Biosciences are offering competing long-read sequencing technologies and enable plant scientists to investigate even large and complex plant genomes. Sequencing projects can be conducted by single research groups and sequences of smaller plant genomes can be completed within days. This also resulted in an increased investigation of genomes from multiple species in large scale to address fundamental questions associated with the origin and evolution of land plants. Increased accessibility of sequencing devices and user-friendly software allows more researchers to get involved in genomics. Current challenges are accurately resolving diploid or polyploid genome sequences and better accounting for the intra-specific diversity by switching from the use of single reference genome sequences to a pangenome graph.

Protein is important for growth, maintenance and protection of the body. Both adequacy of protein quantity and protein quality in the diet are important to guarantee obtaining all the essential amino acids. Protein–energy malnutrition is widely present in developing countries such as Nigeria and might result in stunting and wasting. Needs for protein differ depending on age and physiological status and are higher during growth, pregnancy and lactation. The present review assessed protein quantity and quality in diets of Nigerian infants, children, adolescents, and pregnant and lactating women. Literature reviews and calculations were performed to assess adequacy of Nigerian protein intake and to examine the Nigerian diet. The digestible indispensable amino acid score was used to calculate protein quality of nine Nigerian staple foods and of a mixture of foods. The Nigerian population had mostly adequate protein intake when compared with the most recent protein recommendations by the FAO (2013) and WHO/FAO/UNU (2007). An important exception was the protein intake of adolescent girls and pregnant and lactating women. Most of the assessed Nigerian plant-based staple foods were of low protein quality and predominantly lacked the amino acid lysine. The addition of animal-source foods can bridge the protein quality gap created by predominance of plant-based foods in the Nigerian diet. The methodology of this review can be applied to other low- and middle-income countries where diets are often plant-based and lack variety, which might influence protein intake adequacy.