Using data from the National Survey of Standards of Living conducted in Guatemala in 2000, this article tests the hypothesis that Guatemalan households use child labor and reduce child schooling to cope with household shocks. First, the authors use factor analysis to estimate the latent household propensity to natural disasters and socioeconomic shocks. Then, they estimate bivariate probit models to identify the determinants of child labor and schooling, including household propensity to natural disasters and socioeconomic shocks. Results suggest that households use child labor to cope with natural disasters and socioeconomic shocks. In contrast, the authors found no evidence that suggests that households reduce child schooling to cope with shocks. Findings also indicate that poor households are more likely to use child labor and schooling reduction as strategies to cope with socioeconomic shocks.

ABSTRACT IMPACT: This change will improve primary care physicians and pediatrics ability to identify, intervene and prevent obesity related renal damage in the vulnerable population of young adults OBJECTIVES/GOALS: Obesity related glomerulopathy has a reversible stage manifested as hyperfiltration. Early intervention depends on the ability to identify hyperfiltration. Hyperfiltration prevalence is underestimated using the currently recommended formula We investigated whether calculating BSA-adjusted GFR will more readily identify hyperfiltration. METHODS/STUDY POPULATION: We extracted data from a large urban, multi-institutional Electronic Health Records (EHR) clinical data research network to construct an EHR data base of 60,549 women and girls ages 12-21 years from the New York metropolitan area. EGFR was calculated in two ways, 1) according to age appropriate formula, and 2) according to age appropriate formula and adjusted to body surface area (BSA). BMI-for-age values were classified according to the World Health Organization schema and grouped according to the CDC definitions. BSA was calculated according to the Du-Bois formula. Hyperfiltration was defined by a threshold of 135ml/min. The Bland Altman method assessed the agreement between formulas across the different BMI groups. RESULTS/ANTICIPATED RESULTS: Serum creatinine values were similar across different BMI groups. Comparing eGFR values, hyperfiltration rates were similar across BMI groups, ranging between 4%-6.6%. BSA-adjusted GFR was different across BMI groups: hyperfiltration rates were 0.81% for the underweight group, 2.56% for the normal weight, 12.18% for the overweight and 39% in the obese group. This trend of hyperfiltration paralleled the the rise in urine creatinine across BMI groups. DISCUSSION/SIGNIFICANCE OF FINDINGS: BSA-adjusted GFR more sensitively detects hyperfiltration due to obesity than does eGFR. Calculating BSA-adjusted GFR will improve primary care and pediatric physicians’ ability to identify, intervene and prevent early ORG. Changes in body composition may account for the increasing discordance between BSA-adjusted and eGFR as BMI rises.

Introduction: Acute non-variceal upper gastrointestinal bleeding (NVUGIB) is a common presentation to the Emergency Department (ED) associated with significant mortality and morbidity. Recent evidence suggests that overt-transfusion is associated with poor patient outcomes and that stable patients above a hemoglobin (hgb) above 70 g/L should be transfused judiciously. This retrospective health records review aims to determine the proportion of NVUGIB patients with hemoglobin greater than 70 g/L who were still appropriately transfused based on clinical parameters. Methods: A retrospective review was conducted on randomly selected patients that presented to one of two major tertiary hospitals with a primary diagnosis of NVUGIB who received blood products, despite a presenting hemoglobin >70 g/L. Standardized case report forms were developed through chart abstraction using a pilot-tested template. The appropriateness of transfusion was then adjudicated separately by a trained medical student and an emergency physician; discrepancies were resolved by discussion. Results: Following independent review of the charts, agreement was met on 94% (45/48) of the charts and after collective discussion 100% consensus was reached and all 48 patients’ transfusion appropriateness and categorized into one of three groups: Appropriate, Potentially avoidable, and clearly avoidable. Only in 22.9% (11/48) of the cases was transfusion deemed to be clearly avoidable while emergency physicians appropriately transfused 45.8% (22/48) of patients based on clinical status and other factors. In 31.3% (15/48) of the cases, transfusion was potentially avoidable in favor of other management options. We calculated the mean GBS for the appropriate, potentially avoidable, and clearly avoidable categories yielding 12.8, 12.7, and 10.2 respectively. Mortality occurred in 2 of the 48 cases (4%). Conclusion: In most instances, emergency physicians are effectively integrating hemoglobin thresholds and clinical status to determine if a patients with NVUGIB and hgb >70 require blood products.

In the present investigation, nanostructured ceramic HfN coatings were deposited onto silicon (100) wafer by magnetron sputtering DC method, from a metallic Hf target. The deposition process followed by a similar pattern as the multilayer film deposition, using cycles with the nitrogen gas turned on for 90 s and turned off for 15 s; four sets of samples were obtained using 5, 10, 15 and 20 cycles. The X ray diffraction (XRD) identified the presence of two different cubic crystalline phases of HfN, corroborated by Rietveld analysis. The Vickers hardness test showed that the hardness values increases with more cycles, due to a higher compressive stress evaluated by Stoney formula. All samples were investigated with no visible fracture until 10 grf for the 5 cycles sample; however, no fractures were visible at all for the 15 and 20 cycle samples for that given load, instead fractures started to appear at 25grf for the 10 and 15 cycles coating. Eventually it is distinguished that, the thickness and morphology of the coatings were measured by field emission scanning electron microscopy FE-SEM. As well as, the thickness increased from 0.4 µm to almost 1.33 µm as the number of cycles also increased, where we can observe the formation of columnar growth, moreover it is possible to distinguish the formation of two different clusters which might be related to different phases.

The blood feeding patterns of Anopheles freeborni Aitken and Culex tarsalis Coquillett were studied, and the effects of host availability on these patterns were assessed in four different habitats within a northern California rice agroecosystem. Resting mosquitoes were collected from June to September of 1991 and 1992. The source of mosquito blood meals was identified with the modified precipitin test. Anopheles freeborni exhibited a ‘specialized’ (fixed) blood feeding pattern, predominantly (99% of the time) feeding on mammalian hosts; leporids and bovids were the major hosts, while equines, suids, and other mammals were minor hosts. Culex tarsalis exhibited a more ‘generalized’ (catholic) blood feeding pattern, taking blood meals from both birds and mammals at a ratio of 3:1 with Passeriformes being the most fed upon host group. Human blood indices were under 3% for both mosquito species, and multiple blood meals were estimated at less than 2%. The host feeding patterns for both mosquito species differed among the four (riparian, rice, pasture and mixed) habitats. The host feeding pattern for C. tarsalis reflected the distribution of both mammalian and avian hosts available. On the contrary, the host feeding patterns for A. freeborni reflected the distribution of mammalian but not the available avian hosts. Overall, host availability may be an important determinant of population size of some mosquito taxa (e.g. A. freeborni) than others (e.g. C. tarsalis) in rice culture agroecosystems.

The possible use of tropical forage legumes in pastures based on Brachiaria decumbens and Andropogon gayanus pastures was tested on farms in the humid tropics region of Pucallpa, Perú. The pastures were established by farmers using manual labour. They were associated with maize in some cases and were normally grown without fertilizers. The pastures were established in areas where fallow regrowth was felled and burnt. These pastures, with grass-alone controls, were incorporated by farmers into their normal paddock rotation and were grazed by dual-purpose cows. Despite the variable terrain and soil conditions, all the pastures established and persisted well. Over a four year period under grazing, the legume contribution to the forage averaged 21% and ranged between 1 and 66%. Desmodium ovalifolium was the dominant legume in paddocks that were not burnt, whereas in pastures regularly burnt to control weeds it tended to disappear and Stylosanthes guianensis was the main legume present. It is concluded that where farmers ensure the maintenance of adequate levels of forage, grass-legume mixtures are a viable and persistent option even if the pasture is occasionally burnt.

In this article we present a synthetic overview and preliminary analysis of the data collected by members of the Sierra del Lacandón Regional Archaeology Project (SLRAP) during four field seasons of research from 2003 to 2007. We examine the growth, development, and transformation of the Classic Maya polities of Piedras Negras, Guatemala, and Yaxchilan, Mexico, located in the Middle Usumacinta Basin. This analysis uses a conjunctive approach, incorporating analyses of iconography, epigraphy, settlement patterns, ceramics, mortuary patterns, and architectural styles. During the Late Preclassic period (c. 250 B.C.-A.D. 350) settlement was scattered widely across the study region and Piedras Negras and Yaxchilan were only two of a number of other equally powerful Preclassic communities. In the Early Classic period (c. A.D. 350-600) royal dynasties were established at both Piedras Negras and Yaxchilan and the population of the region became concentrated at these two sites. During the Late Classic period (c. A.D. 600-810) the political frontier between Piedras Negras and Yaxchilan was repopulated and transformed into a contested border zone surrounding a political boundary. This territorial expansion culminated in endemic warfare by the eighth century A.D., which may have ultimately led to the demise of these two Maya polities.