Many types of antenatal stress, not only a diagnosed mental illness, can alter fetal development with a long-lasting effect on the child. There is an increased risk of many types of neurodevelopmental disorder in the child, as well as some physical problems such as asthma, although most children are not affected; the underlying biological mechanisms include alterations in the function of the placenta, the HPA axis and immune system, and epigenetic changes in the child; the impact may be even greater in lower- and middle-income countries, with added stresses due to poverty, food insecurity and high levels of domestic violence among other factors; the implications are that the mental well-being of all pregnant women should be considered and causes of stress addressed where possible. These stresses include the relationship with the partner, pregnancy-related anxiety, exposure to a disaster, or early childhood trauma.

This chapter explores the genetic and cellular foundations of biopsychology, focusing on the diversity that exists at the molecular and cellular levels within the brain. It explains the key processes of gene expression, including DNA transcription and translation, emphasizing how variation in these processes contributes to neuronal diversity. Moreover, this chapter provides a high-level overview of advanced techniques, such as transcriptomics, describing how these techniques are informing the process of classifying neuron types. The chapter also explores cellular anatomy by analyzing the wide range of neuronal shapes and the complexity of their connections. This foundation sets the stage for future discussions of neurotechnologies, for which an understanding of genetic constructs will enable students to better grasp the capabilities of tools like optogenetics and calcium imaging.

In this chapter, we look at some factors as foundational to development, namely genetics and the mechanisms of biological inheritance. In the first major section of the chapter, we examine some of the basic tenets of genetics, including behavioral genetics. In the second section, we discuss the basic ideas of evolutionary theory, particularly as related to children, childhood, and development.

Cells are capable of maintaining a long-term memory in addition to genetic information, which is generally referred to as epigenetics. In the study of memory, digital memory has been often assumed, which is understood as multistability, whereas in the cell there is another form of memory – continuous (analog), kinetic memory. Referring to the kinetic constraints of the glass theory, it is shown that a kinetic memory with slow relaxation emerges as an alternative to the conventional memories of multiple stable states. It is characterized by a slow logarithmic change with several plateaus that can be occupied during the relaxation process. If the same enzyme catalyzes a stepwise reaction, as long as the amount of such enzyme is not sufficient, the reaction process can be hindered by enzyme-limited competition, resulting in kinetic memory. A combination of catalytic reactions can create a negative correlation between the amount of substrate and enzyme in it, thereby allowing a slow relaxation process with many plateaus, where multiple states can be maintained over a long period of time.

If some human trait or capacity is innate, it would seem that there is a genetic basis for it. This chapter explores this possibility with respect to language. We start this chapter with some genetics basics, and we will learn that there is a basis for saying that the human capacity for language has a genetic grounding, although exactly what this meansy is not so easy to establish, because the relationship between the genome and specific aspects of human mental abilities and behavior is very complex. One thing is certain: There is no (single) “gene for language.” Evidence about which genes have an impact on language often comes from people whose language abilities show certain atypical characteristics that are assumed to have a genetic basis when no other conceivable cause seems to be involved. A very important topic in this chapter is epigenetics, which is the science that studies how environmental factors can impact gene expression. This mechanism may hold the key to how nature and nurture interact in general, and the lesson to be learned is that these two factors do not compete or work independently. Rather, they are two sides of the same coin.

This chapter explores the transformative power of learning on the brain, particularly focusing on musical engagement. Research demonstrates that music training influences both brain function and anatomy. Studies reveal pianists exhibiting enhanced brain responses to piano tones, musicians outperforming non-musicians in perceiving subtle pitch variations, and even short-term music lessons improving children’s reading skills. The chapter also highlights the impact of practice on brain structure. Professional musicians, for instance, show anatomical differences in auditory and motor cortices, with more pronounced changes linked to early musical training. These changes, primarily attributed to the formation of new neural connections, underscore the brain’s remarkable plasticity. The author proposes that exceptional skills arise from a combination of genetics, environment, and epigenetic changes. He emphasizes the importance of adopting a mindset of unconditional self-acceptance, as negative self-judgment can hinder the therapeutic benefits of music.

The epigenome is a set of chemical modifications that affect how genes are expressed. These modifications can be influenced by environmental and lifestyle factors, such as diet, exercise, sleep, and stress, throughout the lifespan. One of the common pathways that mediates the effects of epigenetics on health is chronic inflammation, which is involved in many diseases and can be reduced by adopting healthy lifestyle habits. The human microbiome is also relevant in understanding the physiological mechanisms by which lifestyle, in particular nutrition, affects health. The microbiome is the collection of microorganisms that live in and on the human body. The microbiome has a key role in modulating the immune system, metabolism, and brain health. The most diverse and influential part of the microbiome is the gut microbiome, which consists of trillions of bacteria, viruses, fungi, and other microbes that reside in the gastrointestinal tract. A healthy and balanced gut microbiome is associated with many benefits for physical and mental health, while an imbalance or dysbiosis can lead to many chronic conditions. The gut microbiome communicates with the brain through the gut–brain axis, which is a complex network of nerves, hormones, and neurotransmitters that influences mood, cognition, and behaviour.

Obesity is a worsening global epidemic that is detrimentally affecting women’s reproductive health. Being obese not only decreases fertility, but also increases miscarriage rates and other pregnancy complications. Perhaps even more significant is the increasing evidence demonstrating associations between maternal obesity and long-term risks of obesity and metabolic disturbances in the offspring.

The mechanisms mediating the effects of obesity on early pregnancy are likely multifactorial, involving oocyte quality, embryo competence, endometrial receptivity, and fetal development. Early pregnancy is a critical time that strongly influences the fate of the pregnancy as well as the health of the next generation.

Richard Tremblay started his professional career as a clinician with juvenile delinquents and mentally ill offenders. He spent the rest of his career doing longitudinal and experimental studies to identify effective preventive interventions during the preschool and elementary school years. Results from these studies showed that early interventions with at risk children and their parents had very long-term impacts. Within these longitudinal studies, he also studied genetic and epigenetic effects on the development of violent behavior.

Over the past half-century attachment theory has emerged as a driving force for research and practice across much of the developmental psychology community. Some of the most compelling empirical support for the biological basis of attachment theory has come from research with monkeys. This chapter highlights some contributions that my colleagues and I have made in generating this evidence by broadening the range of activities associated with attachment throughout development, exploring the relationship between behavioral patterns and a host of biological processes including some genetic factors, and characterizing the consequences of different expressions of attachment for the external social world that is progressively engaged throughout development. This body of nonhuman primate research has featured several important turning points, largely the product of certain unique combinations of colleagues and circumstances that served to generate major inflection points in shaping the direction and scope of the research described here.