Development of integrated weed management strategies requires knowledge of weed emergence timing and patterns, which are regulated primarily by water and thermal requirements for seed germination. Laboratory experiments were conducted in fall 2017 to fall 2018 to quantify the effect of osmotic potential and temperature on germination of 44 kochia [Bassia scoparia (L.) A.J. Scott] populations under controlled conditions. Bassia scoparia populations were collected in fall 2016 from northern (near Huntley, MT, and Powell, WY) and southern (near Lingle, WY, and Scottsbluff, NE) regions of the U.S. Great Plains. Ten osmotic potentials from 0 to −2.1 MPa and eight constant temperatures from 4 to 26 C were evaluated. Response of B. scoparia populations to osmotic potential did not differ between the northern and southern regions. At an osmotic potential of 0 MPa, all B. scoparia populations had greater than 98% germination, and the time to achieve 50% germination (t50) was less than 1 d. At −1.6 MPa, 25% of seeds of all B. scoparia populations germinated. Osmotic potentials of −0.85 and −1.9 MPa reduced B. scoparia germination by 10% and 90%, respectively. Regardless of temperature regime, all populations exhibited greater than 88% germination. The germination rate was highest at temperatures between 15 to 26 C and did not differ between populations from northern versus southern regions. At this temperature range, all populations had a t50 of less than 1 d. However, at 4 C, B. scoparia populations from the northern region had a higher germination rate (5 h) and cumulative germination (7%) than populations from the southern region. Overall, these results indicate a wide range of optimum temperatures and osmotic potential requirements for B. scoparia germination.

Large herbivores can disperse seeds over long distances through endozoochory. The Korean water deer (Hydropotes inermis argyropus), an internationally vulnerable species but locally considered a vermin, is a potential endozoochorous seed dispersal vector. In this study, feeding experiments were conducted to test the efficiency of seed dispersal through gut ingestion by the Korean water deer, its temporal pattern and the effect of gut passage on seed recovery and germination rate. Eight plant species, including species that formerly germinated from its faeces, were used to feed three Korean water deer. Once the deer had consumed all the provided seeds, their faeces were collected after 24, 48, 72 and 96 h. The collected faeces were air-dried, and the number of seeds retrieved from the faeces was counted every 24 h (0–24, 24–48, 48–72 and 72–96 h). Among the eight plant species, six species were retrieved with intact seeds. Panicum bisulcatum had the highest recovery rate of 33.7%, followed by Amaranthus mangostanus (24.5%) and Chenopodium album (14.4%). Most of the seeds were recovered within the 24–48 h time interval. Germination tests were conducted on the ingested and uningested seeds for the four species which had a sufficient recovery rate. The effects of gut passage on seed germination differed according to plant species. The germination rate substantially decreased after gut passage. The results suggest that the Korean water deer can disperse seeds, potentially over long distances albeit at a high cost of low seed recovery and germination rate.

Luiz Fernando Gouvêa Labouriau (1921–1996) was a pioneer plant biologist who made significant contributions to plant physiology, mostly by bringing seed germination into a thermobiological context. His studies have set the foundations of seed science in Brazil and keep inspiring researchers until now.

Mangroves are highly adapted to extreme environmental conditions that occur at the interface of salt and fresh water. Adaptations to the saline environment during germination are a key to mangrove survival, and thereby, its distribution. The main objective of this research was to study the effect of salinity on seed germination of selected mangrove species and the application of a hydrotime model to explain the relationship between water potential of the medium and rate of seed germination. Germination of seeds was examined at 15, 25 and 35°C in light/dark over a NaCl gradient. Germination time courses were prepared, and germination data were used to investigate whether these species behave according to the principles of the hydrotime model. The model was fitted for the germination of Acanthus ilicifolius seeds at 25°C. Final germination percentage was significantly influenced by species, osmotic potential and their interaction at 25°C. Moreover, temperature had a clear effect on seed germination (Sonneratia caseolaris and Pemphis acidula) which interacted with osmotic potential. Only A. ilicifolius seeds behaved according to the hydrotime principles and thus its threshold water potential was –1.8 MPa. Optimum germination rates for seeds of the other species occurred at osmotic potentials other than 0 MPa. The descending order of salinity tolerance of the tested species was Aegiceras corniculatum > Sonneratia caseolaris > Acanthus ilicifolius > Pemphis acidula > Allophylus cobbe, suggesting that the viviparous species (A. corniculatum) is highly salt tolerant compared with the non-viviparous species. The results revealed that seeds of the study species exhibited facultative halophytic behaviour in which they can germinate over a broad range of saline environments. Use of a hydrotime model for mangroves was limited as germination of their seeds did not meet model criteria.

Each taxon is characterized by a temperature range over which seed germination is possible and this may vary in space and time in relation to climate and ecological conditions. We used thermal modelling to test the hypothesis that thermal thresholds for seed germination can predict germination timing of Mediterranean species along an altitudinal and environmental gradient. Seeds of 18 species were collected in Sardinia from sea level to 1810 m above sea level, and germination tests were carried out at a range of constant (5 to 25°C) and alternating (25/10°C) temperatures. Different dormancy-breaking treatments [gibberellic acid (GA3), cold (C) and warm (W) stratifications and dry after ripening (DAR)] were applied. The annual pattern of soil temperatures was recorded using 24 data-loggers buried close to the study species. The logged soil temperatures distinguished ‘Mediterranean lowland’ from ‘Mediterranean mountain’ species. Although germination was >50% in untreated seeds of most species, GA3 had a positive effect in all species. C either inhibited or had a neutral effect on germination, W did not enhanced seed germination, while DAR had a positive effect only in species from coastal environments. The thermal time constant (S) for 50% germination ranged from 22 to 357°Cd (degree days) above base temperatures (Tb) of –9 to 9°C, depending on species and treatments. Mediterranean lowland species had lower Tb values compared with upland species. This study revealed significant differences in germination thresholds of Mediterranean lowland and mountain species in relation to Tb and S that probably have an impact on germination timing in the field and niche competitiveness.

Field observations indicate that sulfonylurea-resistant kochia may germinate at lower soil temperatures and/or germinate more rapidly than susceptible kochia in the absence of herbicide. To investigate this possibility, seeds from three resistant and two susceptible kochia accessions were germinated at temperatures ranging from 4.6 to 13.2 C on thermal gradient plates. At 4.6 and 13.2 C, germination rates of all resistant accessions were higher than susceptible accessions, while germination rates of one resistant accession were higher than susceptible accessions at 7.2 and 10.5 C. Percent germination of all resistant accessions was significantly higher than susceptible accessions after 48 h at 4.6 C. At higher temperatures, percent germination of some resistant accessions was higher after 12 or 24 h, but germination of all accessions was similar at later times. HPLC analysis revealed that seeds from resistant accessions contained about 2-fold higher free levels of branched chain amino acids than seeds from susceptible accessions. The results indicate that mutations conferring resistance to sulfonylurea herbicides in these kochia accessions may concomitantly reduce or abolish acetolactate synthase sensitivity to normal feedback inhibition patterns, resulting in elevated levels of branched chain amino acids available for cell division and growth during early germination.

Experiments were conducted to determine the influences of temperature, light, winter storage, and water stress on seed germination of fringed sage. Seeds collected in 3 yr in central Saskatchewan were placed in sealed vials and buried in the soil after harvest, and germination was tested in spring and early summer. Seeds germinated over a wide range of temperatures with alternating 25/15 C being optimal. The range of optimal temperatures was higher for older seeds than younger seeds. The stimulating effect of light on germination varied among collections and incubating temperatures. Total germination and germination rate was limited by water stress and no seeds germinated at osmotic potentials below −0.9 MPa. Seeds hydrated in the autumn and exposed to low winter temperatures had higher germination the following spring than dry seeds exposed to the same conditions. Results suggest that sufficient soil moisture combined with moderate seedbed temperatures are optimal for fringed sage germination. Periodicity of germination may be influenced by variable germination requirements in different aging seeds.

Silky windgrass and annual bluegrass are among the most troublesome weeds in northern European winter crops, while problems with rattail fescue have been especially linked to direct-drilling practices. This study investigated the germination patterns of silky windgrass, annual bluegrass, and rattail fescue in multiple water potentials and temperature regimes. Temperature and water potential effects were similar between silky windgrass and rattail fescue, but differed from annual bluegrass. The three grass weeds were able to germinate under low water potential (−1.0 MPa), although water potentials ≤−0.25 MPa strongly delayed their germination. Silky windgrass and rattail fescue seeds were able to germinate at 1 C, while the minimum temperature for annual bluegrass germination was 5 C. Germination of silky windgrass and rattail fescue was very similar across temperature and water potentials, which implies similar emergence flushes under field conditions, allowing management interventions to follow the same scheme.

Littleseed canarygrass is a troublesome grass weed in wheat fields in Iran.Predicting weed emergence dynamics can help farmers more effectively controlweeds. In this work, four nonlinear regression models (beta, three-piecesegmented, two-piece segmented, and modified Malo's exponential sine) werecompared to describe the cardinal temperatures for the germination oflittleseed canarygrass. Two replicated experiments were performed with thesame temperatures. An iterative optimization method was used to calibratethe models and different statistical indices (mean absolute error [MAE],coefficient of determination [R2], intercept and slope of the regression equation of predictedvs. observed hours to germination) were applied to compare theirperformance. The three-piece segmented model was the best model to predictthe germination rate (R2 = 0.99, MAE = 0.20 d, and coefficient of variation 1.01 to4.06%). Based on the model outputs, the base, the lower optimum, the upperoptimum, and the maximum temperatures for the germination of littleseedcanarygrass were estimated to be 4.69, 22.60, 29.62, and 38.13 C,respectively. The thermal time required to reach 10, 50, and 90% germinationwas 31.98, 39.26 and 45.55 degree-days, respectively. The cardinaltemperatures depended on the model used for their estimation. Overall, thethree-piece segmented model was better suited than the other models toestimate the cardinal temperatures for the germination of littleseedcanarygrass.

Germination of weed seed and time of emergence are greatly affected by temperature. The effects of temperature on seed germination of tumble pigweed, prostrate pigweed, smooth pigweed, Palmer amaranth, Powell amaranth, spiny amaranth, redroot pigweed, common waterhemp, and tall waterhemp were examined under constant and alternating temperature regimens at 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, and 35 C. Averaged over all temperatures, alternating temperature regimens increased total germination of all species, except Powell amaranth, which germinated similarly under both constant and alternating temperatures. In addition, Powell amaranth seed exhibited the highest total germination across all temperatures compared with the other amaranth species. Prostrate pigweed seed demonstrated the lowest total germination. Optimal temperatures for maximum germination were greater than 20 C for all species, except prostrate pigweed. The alternating temperature regimen centering at 30 C was used to compare the germination rates of the nine species. Palmer amaranth and smooth pigweed attained complete germination on the first day. The rate of germination for these species was much more rapid than the other Amaranthus spp., which took 3 to 8 d to reach 50% germination.

Seed germination is responsive to diverse environmental, hormonal and chemical signals. Germination rates (i.e. speed and distribution in time) reveal information about timing, uniformity and extent of germination in seed populations and are sensitive indicators of seed vigour and stress tolerance. Population-based threshold (PBT) models have been applied to describe germination responses to temperature, water potential, hormones, ageing and oxygen. However, obtaining detailed data on germination rates of seed populations requires repeated observations at frequent times to construct germination time courses, which is labour intensive and often impractical. Recently, instruments have been developed to measure repeatedly the respiration (oxygen consumption) of individual seeds following imbibition, providing complete respiratory time courses for populations of individual seeds in an automated manner. In this study, we demonstrate a new approach that enables the use of single-seed respiratory data, rather than germination data, to characterize the responses of seed populations to diverse conditions. We applied PBT models to single-seed respiratory data and compared the results to similar analyses of germination time courses. We found consistent and quantitatively comparable relationships between seed respiratory and germination patterns in response to temperature, water potential, abscisic acid, gibberellin, respiratory inhibitors, ageing and priming. This close correspondence between seed respiration and germination time courses enables the use of semi-automated respiratory measurements to assess seed vigour and quality parameters. It also raises intriguing questions about the fundamental relationship between the respiratory capacities of seeds and the rates at which they proceed toward completion of germination.

Miconia chartacea is a widely distributed tree in Brazil, occurring at altitudes ranging from 300 m to 1900 m in the Caatinga, Cerrado and Atlantic Forest biomes. In this work we attempted to classify M. chartacea seeds regarding their behaviour during storage and their germination syndrome and to determine, from a storage test in Cerrado soil and laboratory conditions in situ and ex situ, the longevity of seeds, as well as the capacity of the species to form a soil seed bank. The results suggested that M. chartacea seeds form a transient soil seed bank in the Cerrado and can be classified as orthodox in terms of storage behaviour, although the seeds are dispersed with a relatively high water content. The life span of seeds was favoured in soil-stored seeds in comparison with dry storage at 25°C, whereas storage at low temperatures prevented a decrease of the seed's germinability with storage time (330 d). M. chartacea seeds are dispersed during the dry season and germinate during the next rainy season, which can be classified as an intermediate–dry germination syndrome. Seeds of this species are dispersed in the Cerrado when temperatures and soil moisture are relatively low, which favours the formation of a soil seed bank, considering that the seeds tolerate desiccation and their longevity is favoured by low temperatures. A transient seed bank type is favoured by the loss of viability in storage at warm temperatures linked to the rainy season, and the predictable seasonal variations in climate in the region, with germination being restricted to the beginning of the rainy season.

Temperature is a key environmental signal regulating germination. A thorough understanding of how seed populations respond to various temperatures can inform end-users regarding effective establishment strategies and forms the basis for questions related to a taxon's thermo-biology. Although abundant information exists regarding germination responses of economically important crops to several temperature scenarios, much less is known concerning the seed biology of wild germplasm. To address this, we examined the germination response of non-dormant Rudbeckia mollis seeds to various doses of constant or simulated seasonal diel temperatures. Germination response was sigmoidal. Seeds of R. mollis were capable of germinating within a few days to high percentages (>95%) at relatively cool constant (15–25°C) or 12-hour alternating (22/11–33/24°C) temperatures, with optimum temperatures for germination occurring at 25°C or 29/19°C. Germination was inhibited as temperatures increased to 30°C or 33/24°C with early and late germinating phenotypes displaying differential responses at these temperatures. No germination occurred at 35°C. Results are discussed in terms of seedling establishment of R. mollis outside its natural range and implications of climate change on germination.

The drying rate of whole seeds of Ekebergia capensis (Meliaceae) was shown to influence the response to desiccation, with rapidly dried seeds surviving to lower water contents. Short-term rapid drying (to water contents higher than those leading to viability loss) actually increased the rate of germination. The form of the time course of decline of axis water content varied with drying rate; slow drying could be described by an exponential function, whereas with rapid drying initial water loss was faster than predicted by an exponential function. These observations suggest that slow drying brought about homogeneous dehydration and that the rapid drying was uneven across the tissue. This raised the possibility that the different responses to dehydration were a function of different distributions of water in the axis tissue under the two drying regimes. However, ultrastructural observations indicated that different deleterious processes may be occurring under the different drying treatments. It was tentatively concluded that a major cause of viability loss in slowly dried material was likely to be a consequence of aqueous-based processes leading to considerable membrane degradation. Uneven distribution of tissue water could not be rejected as a contributory cause of the survival of rapidly dried seeds to low bulk water contents. The differential response to dehydration at different drying rates implies that it is not possible to determine a ‘critical water content’ for viability loss by recalcitrant seeds.

Germinability and the rate of germination were related to seed mass in Lithospermum arvense L. and Anchusa arvensis (L.) Bieb. Prior to germination experiments, seeds from two populations of each species had been sorted into nine similarly sized groups according to their seed mass. Germinability varied greatly among the different seed-mass fractions in L. arvense, while differences were smaller in A. arvensis. Germination rate varied with seed mass in some cases. However, in many cases where clear patterns in the relationship between germination characteristics and seed mass were found, these patterns differed both between species and between populations. Furthermore, the character of the relationship varied depending on the experimental conditions used. It is hard to identify the cause of these relations since within- and between-plant variability can affect both seed mass and germination characteristics independently. It is concluded that the results of a germination test can differ depending on the seed mass fractions used, but that the magnitude and direction of such differences are difficult to foresee. Therefore, seed batches should be prepared with care, and experiments designed with awareness of the importance of the germination conditions chosen.

Orthodox, desiccation-tolerant seeds lose desiccation tolerance during germination. Here, we quantify the timing of the loss of desiccation tolerance, and explore the implications of this event for seed mortality and the shape of germination progress curves for pioneer tree species. For the nine species studied, all seeds in a seedlot lost desiccation tolerance after the same fixed proportion of their time to germination, and this proportion was fairly constant across the species (0.63–0.70). The loss of desiccation tolerance after a fixed proportion of the time to germination has the implication that the maximum number of seeds in a seedlot that can be killed by a single drying event during germination (Mmax) increases with an increasing time to 50% germination (t50) and an increasing slope of the germination progress curve. Consequently, to prevent the seed population from becoming highly vulnerable to desiccation-induced mortality, species with a greater t50 would be expected to have a shallower germination progress curve. In conclusion, these data suggest that the loss of desiccation tolerance during germination may constitute a significant, but previously unexplored, source of mortality for seeds in seasonal environments with unpredictable rainfall.

Ecophysiological aspects of seed germination were investigated in four Mediterranean geophytes of the genus Muscari (Liliaceae): M. comosum (tassel hyacinth), M. neglectum (common grape hyacinth), M. commutatum and M. weissii. Experiments were performed at constant temperatures in the dark and under temperature and light conditions simulating those prevailing in nature during November–January, i.e. well into the rainy season of the Mediterranean climate. In all species, no primary dormancy was revealed, and germination occurred in a rather narrow range of cool temperatures (optimum at 10 or 15°C) and at a remarkably slow rate; both germination characteristics seem to be associated with autumn/winter seed germination and seedling establishment. Such a postulated strategy is ecologically advantageous within an unpredictable rainfall regime, known to prevail during the start of the rainy period of the Mediterranean climate. This strategy may also explain the spread of germination of M. comosum seeds over two consecutive years, observed by Theophrastus. Far-red light, simulating light conditions under a dense canopy, resulted in only a slight delay of germination compared to dark controls. Diurnal white light, qualitatively simulating natural daylight, caused a significant decrease of the germination rate in all four species studied. Moreover, white light was found to suppress considerably final seed germination (photoinhibition) in M. weissii and M. neglectum; in the latter species, prolonged imbibition under white light also led to the induction of secondary dormancy.

Most Pinus species are obligate seeders. Thus, knowledge of germination characteristics can help in the understanding, prediction and manipulation of the regeneration and dynamics of pine forests. Seven pine species with contrasting habitat preferences and different genetic pairwise distances are present in the Iberian Peninsula and the Canary Islands: P. halepensis, P. nigra, P. pinaster, P. pinea, P. sylvestris, P. uncinata and P. canariensis. These seven pine species comprise an exceptional experimental set to test some questions related to germination traits, such as: (1) What are the effects of light and temperature on germination, taking into account interpopulation variability? (2) Is there any association of germination traits with habitat (montane versus lowland) preferences? and (3) What is the relationship between germination traits and the genetic distance between pine species? P. nigra, P. sylvestris and P. uncinata seeds showed faster germination rates. Seeds of P. nigra and P. sylvestris reached high total germination percentages in every temperature and light treatment, suggesting an opportunistic germination strategy. Unlike montane pines, lowland pines did show significant effects of temperature on germination response: final germination was higher between 15°C and 20°C than at warmer and alternating temperatures. Relatively low temperatures associated with the winter rainy season would favour germination of most of these species. Nested models showed that population variability was the main source of variation in germination response. Thus, there is no phylogenetic control of the germination response and, surprisingly, germination traits were not related to habitat preferences. As a consequence, we believe that studies of the germination characteristics of a pine species should consider different populations.