This chapter examines late antique Armenia, focusing on its architectural developments, Christianisation and regional influences. It traces the evolution of Armenian church architecture between the fourth and seventh centuries, emphasising connections with Rome, Persia and Byzantium. The chapter discusses key archaeological findings, including churches, funerary monuments and inscriptions. Major sites like the basilica of Ereroykʿ, the church of Hṙipʿsimē and the patriarchal complexes of Duin and Zuartʿnocʿ reveal a shift from simple basilicas to complex domed designs. The chapter discusses innovations such as tetraconch and triconch plans and explores the role of elite patronage in church construction, as seen in the princely complex of Aruč. Rather than depicting Armenia as an isolated frontier, it argues that its architecture reflects strong ties with Syrian, Byzantine and Iranian traditions. Sculptural decoration, inscriptions and building techniques illustrate these cultural exchanges. While political shifts influenced construction, ongoing excavations continue to shape our understanding of Armenia’s late antique landscape. The chapter stresses the need for further archaeological research, particularly in under-explored areas, to provide a fuller picture of the region’s historical development.

This chapter focuses on the urban and rural landscapes of the Balkans in Late Antiquity, covering modern-day Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Kosovo, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Romania, Serbia and Slovenia . It examines how cities and countryside areas evolved between the third and seventh centuries, with a particular emphasis on the material traces of early Christianity. The chapter draws on archaeological evidence, historical texts and urban planning studies to highlight the transformation of key cities such as Thessaloniki, Nicopolis ad Istrum and Serdica (modern Sofia). This contribution argues that the Balkans served as a cultural and political bridge between Asia and Europe, influencing the spread of Christianity and shaping imperial policies. It also explores how urban centres adapted to economic shifts and military threats, with some cities reinforcing their fortifications while others declined. Thessaloniki, for instance, maintained its urban layout and economic role, even as certain Roman public buildings fell out of use. Religious change also played a crucial role in shaping the Balkan landscape. Christian basilicas replaced pagan temples, while monasteries and bishopric centres became focal points for local governance and cultural life. The chapter further addresses the challenges of dating archaeological sites, emphasising the need for more precise chronological frameworks.

This chapter examines the urban development of Constantinople in Late Antiquity, tracing its transformation from a small Greek settlement into the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. It focuses on three major phases of construction: Constantine’s foundation (324–37), the Theodosian expansion (379–450) and Justinian’s rebuilding efforts (527–65). The study explores key infrastructure projects, including city walls, forums, aqueducts, palaces, churches and harbours, demonstrating how these developments reshaped the city’s urban landscape. A central theme is the political and symbolic role of architecture in establishing Constantinople’s imperial identity. Constantine’s expansion laid the foundation for a monumental capital, incorporating existing Severan structures while introducing new landmarks such as the Forum of Constantine. The Theodosian period witnessed the construction of the formidable land walls and major religious buildings, further solidifying the city’s status as a Christian metropolis. Under Justinian, Constantinopolitan architecture reached its peak, with the reconstruction of Hagia Sophia serving as a defining moment in Byzantine building traditions. The chapter also addresses archaeological challenges, noting that while much of the ancient city has been lost due to war and modern urban development, ongoing excavations continue to provide valuable insights into Constantinople’s late antique transformation.

This chapter explores the archaeology of late antique Syria, emphasising its historical significance and research challenges. Syria has one of the highest concentrations of late antique sites, particularly in the Limestone Massif, yet modern national borders obscure historical connections with Lebanon, Jordan and Turkey. Drawing on historical texts, travel accounts and archaeological surveys, the chapter traces the development of research from early European explorers to twentieth-century French-led excavations. It examines the influence of colonial mandates and political changes, including the impact of the Syrian civil war on archaeological preservation. A central argument is that late antique Syria has been overlooked in favour of earlier Roman and later Islamic studies. Limited excavations, instability and destruction have further hindered research. However, the chapter stresses the importance of studying Syria’s role in connecting the Roman, Persian and early Islamic worlds. Instead of focusing solely on elite monuments, the chapter calls for research on everyday settlements to provide a fuller picture of Syrian society during Late Antiquity.

The Encyclopaedia of Late Antique Art and Archaeology seeks to fill a significant gap in historical research by placing art and archaeology at the forefront of late Roman and late antique studies. Recognising the need for a comprehensive and accessible reference, this work moves beyond the traditional focus on ‘early Christian archaeology’ to adopt a broader perspective. It highlights the dynamic interplay of Christianity, Judaism and Islam, challenging outdated notions of a fully Christianised Late Antiquity. Organised into six sections – architecture and iconography, artefacts and material evidence, urbanism and rural landscapes, regional and ethnic diversity, and key issues and debates – the encyclopaedia offers a structured, in-depth exploration of the field. With contributions from leading scholars, it synthesises archaeological discoveries to challenge narratives of decline, instead presenting Late Antiquity as an era of transformation and cultural fusion.

This chapter explores late antique wall painting, with special emphasis on its stylistic transformation, evolving iconography and the challenges of preservation and interpretation. It traces the shift from illusionistic Roman painting to the more abstract, linear styles that characterised Late Antiquity. A central argument is that late antique wall painting represents not a decline in artistic quality but rather an adaptive response to new cultural, religious and spatial demands. The chapter examines the rise of Liniendekoration (linear decoration), a geometric style that became dominant in funerary contexts, particularly in Roman catacombs, Egyptian monasteries and Mediterranean hypogea. It also explores the coexistence of early Christian imagery with traditional pagan motifs, emphasising continuity rather than abrupt change. In analysing these shifts, the chapter highlights how late antique painters simplified classical techniques in response to changing workshop practices, economic factors and environmental constraints. It also addresses key methodological challenges, including dating wall paintings, identifying regional styles and assessing the influence of early Christian and Jewish artistic traditions. This study stresses the crucial role of wall painting in Late Antiquity as a medium for shaping religious and social identities, demonstrating its artistic innovation and cultural significance.

This chapter discusses the development of Jewish synagogue architecture in Late Antiquity, tracing its evolution from the early centuries to the more monumental structures of the fourth to sixth centuries. Drawing on a range of sources, it explores how synagogue architecture varied across regions, reflecting local styles, communal preferences and interactions with surrounding Christian and pagan cultures. While early synagogues primarily functioned as spaces for Torah readings, later structures became more elaborate, incorporating decorative elements such as Jewish symbols (e.g. the menorah, Torah shrine and ritual objects) and even figural representations – challenging traditional assumptions about aniconism in Judaism. The chapter also addresses debates over synagogue chronology, arguing that established typologies, such as Galilean-type and Byzantine-type synagogues, require re-evaluation in the light of recent archaeological discoveries. It emphasises that synagogue architecture was shaped not only by religious traditions but also by broader social and political factors. The presence of monumental synagogues in Late Antiquity suggests that Jewish communities remained active and resilient even under Christian rule.

This chapter focuses on the transformation of rural landscapes in the western Roman Empire during Late Antiquity, analysing shifts in settlement patterns, economic structures and agrarian practices. It highlights the increasing availability of archaeological data over the past two decades, which has reinforced the idea that rural experiences during this period varied significantly across regions. Rather than a uniform decline, the countryside exhibited multiple trajectories, including contraction, reorganisation and, in some cases, expansion. A major theme is the decline of the villa system and the parallel emergence or resurgence of upland settlements and forested regions as integral components of rural economies. This study argues that these changes were not simply responses to political fragmentation but reflected broader socio-economic transformations, including shifts in land ownership, subsistence strategies and local production systems. It also examines the interplay between long-distance trade and localised economies, challenging the notion that rural economies collapsed entirely after the fall of Rome. The chapter further critiques traditional narratives that frame rural change through the binary lens of ‘continuity versus decline’. Instead, it advocates for a more nuanced approach that recognises both persistence and adaptation in late antique countryside economies.

This chapter explores the role of metalwork in Late Antiquity, with particular focus on the production, distribution and significance of gold, silver, copper, iron, lead and tin artefacts. It examines metal extraction processes, manufacturing techniques and the various ways in which metal objects were used in both secular and religious contexts. Drawing on archaeological evidence, chemical analysis and written sources, the chapter highlights how the study of metalwork provides valuable insights into the economic structures and political landscape of the late antique period. Rather than reflecting decline, late antique metalwork demonstrates adaptation to new demands. Gold and silver, used for coinage, jewellery and ceremonial objects, continued to be produced in both state-run and private workshops, with Constantinople, Antioch and Alexandria emerging as key centres. Silver plate played an essential role in imperial gift-giving and church donations, while stamped silver objects indicate a sophisticated state-controlled production system. The chapter also examines the continued production of copper alloys and iron, which were essential for military equipment, everyday utensils and monumental architecture, as well as lead and tin, which were widely used in construction, plumbing and pilgrimage objects.

This chapter explores the history and archaeology of Antioch in Late Antiquity, analysing the city’s evolution from its Seleucid foundation to its prominence as a Roman, Byzantine and early Islamic centre. A key argument is that Antioch’s transformation was a story not of decline but of adaptation, shaped by political shifts, natural disasters and evolving architectural traditions. This study highlights the challenges faced by early excavations, particularly the Princeton University-led campaign in the 1930s, which struggled with sedimentation, modern urban encroachment and a focus on decorative mosaics rather than structural remains. Despite these setbacks, that project yielded significant insights into Antioch’s topography, including the layout of its colonnaded streets, fora and fortifications. The chapter also examines the role of imperial patronage in reshaping the city, with figures like Constantine, Theodosius and Justinian commissioning extensive rebuilding efforts, including churches, palaces and defensive walls. While earthquakes, Persian invasions and environmental challenges altered the urban fabric, Antioch retained its status as a major intellectual, religious and economic hub well into the early Islamic period.

This chapter examines the diverse groups of Eastern Europe in Late Antiquity, emphasising their interactions with Rome and Byzantium rather than viewing them as isolated. It focuses on groups such as the Goths, Huns, Gepids, Bulgars and Avars, analysing their political structures, military tactics and economies. Using archaeological evidence – settlements, burials and trade artefacts – alongside historical sources like Jordanes, Procopius and Ammianus Marcellinus, the chapter explores Gothic migration through the Wielbark and Černjachov cultures and the role of the Huns in reshaping power dynamics. Roman influence is evident in diplomacy, material culture and religion, particularly through Ulfila’s missionary work among the Goths. Rather than framing ‘barbarian invasions’ as simple military conquests, the study highlights complex cultural exchanges and the gradual integration of these societies into the post-Roman world. It argues that Eastern European groups were active agents in shaping medieval Europe rather than mere recipients of Roman influence. Migration, identity and power are shown to be fluid, challenging traditional narratives.

This chapter explores the transformation of epigraphy in Late Antiquity, examining how inscriptions evolved in form, function and visibility between the third and seventh centuries. It discusses a wide range of inscriptional materials, including monumental inscriptions, funerary epitaphs, dedicatory plaques and graffiti, emphasising how changes in literacy, religious practices and political structures influenced their production and use. A key argument is that inscriptions in Late Antiquity shifted from primarily verbal communication to a more visual, symbolic and performative role. This transition is particularly evident in the increasing prominence of monograms, Christograms and abbreviated script, which prioritised recognisability over readability. The study also highlights the growing integration of religious elements in epigraphic practice, showing how Christian inscriptions, often featuring biblical quotations or crosses, became dominant in both private and public spaces. Additionally, the chapter explores regional variations in epigraphic density, noting that while inscriptions declined in some western provinces, they remained widely used in the Eastern Mediterranean. The digitisation of inscriptions has greatly expanded access to this material. The chapter concludes that epigraphy in Late Antiquity reflected broader cultural transformations, evolving from an elite-driven practice to a medium deeply connected to religious identity and social cohesion.