This chapter explores ivory production and craftsmanship in Late Antiquity, examining its material properties, artistic significance and sociopolitical functions to trace the evolution of ivory carving from the fourth to the sixth century. From a technical perspective, the chapter argues that late antique ivory carving was not a rupture from earlier traditions but rather a continuation with distinctive adaptations. In terms of provenance, it highlights the importance of elephant ivory, particularly from North and East Africa, prized for its durability and aesthetic appeal. Ivory was widely used in diplomatic gifts, religious artefacts and luxury objects, including consular diptychs, book covers, furniture inlays and pyxides. The discussion also addresses the role of ivory in elite gift-giving and political symbolism, emphasising how consular diptychs functioned as commemorative objects that reinforced civic and imperial identity. Additionally, the chapter examines economic and geopolitical disruptions, particularly the Byzantine–Sasanian wars and the rise of Islam, which altered ivory trade routes and contributed to the decline of large-scale production. Despite these challenges, this study documents how ivory carving remained a vital artistic tradition, reflecting the adaptability of late antique artisans and the evolving cultural landscape of the period.

This chapter examines pottery in Late Antiquity, with a particular focus on chronology and the economic and social significance of pottery across the Mediterranean. It analyses various categories of ceramics, including fine wares, coarse wares, amphorae and lamps, using typological classification, archaeometry and distribution patterns to trace their evolution from the third to the seventh century. At the heart of the discussion is the argument that late antique pottery serves as a key indicator of economic and cultural continuity rather than decline. The study highlights the dominance of African Red Slip Ware (ARS) in the Western Mediterranean, charting its peak production and widespread distribution from the late third to the seventh century. It also explores how ARS workshops in Carthage and Byzacena continued to innovate, introducing new forms and Christian motifs to adapt to changing political landscapes. Expanding on regional variations, the chapter also examines how eastern Mediterranean fine wares experienced a later resurgence, with Cypriot and Phocaean Red Slip Wares becoming more prominent in the fifth and sixth centuries. By demonstrating how amphora production patterns reflect shifts in trade networks and agricultural production, particularly in the transport of wine, oil and fish products, the chapter documents the vital role of pottery in understanding economic and social transformations in Late Antiquity.

This chapter explores dress and furnishing textiles in Late Antiquity, examining their materials, production techniques and cultural significance in both everyday and elite settings. It argues that textile production was a major sector of the late Roman economy, with fabrics sourced from across the empire and beyond, including silk from the East and high-quality linen from Egypt. This study also investigates how political and social changes influenced fashion, with garments reflecting shifts in identity, status and religious affiliation. A major challenge in studying textiles from this period is the fragmentary nature of surviving garments and the difficulty of matching literary descriptions to actual finds, a concern the chapter addresses in detail. A significant focus is placed on the emergence of Christian liturgical dress, tracing how bishops and clergy gradually adopted distinct garments, such as the dalmatica and pallium, to signal their ecclesiastical roles. The discussion concludes with an examination of furnishing textiles, including wall hangings and upholstery, which played a crucial role in interior decoration. By integrating diverse sources, the chapter demonstrates that textiles were not only practical necessities but also important cultural and economic markers in Late Antiquity.

This chapter explores the economy of the later Roman Empire, with special emphasis on resource management, economic structures and regional variations. It highlights how land, labour and capital functioned within a largely agrarian system, with agriculture serving as the primary economic driver and tax base. The chapter examines diverse sources, including archaeological surveys, historical texts, coinage and environmental data. It analyses the effects of political instability, regional differentiation and resource distribution on economic trends. Case studies from North Gaul, Iberia, Italy and the Eastern Mediterranean reveal that economic activity was influenced by both local conditions and imperial policies. The study also incorporates ecological data, such as pollen analysis and lead pollution levels, to assess economic fluctuations. A central argument is that the later Roman economy was not a uniform system but a collection of interconnected regional economies. While political fragmentation led to economic contractions in some areas, others adapted through local specialisation and changing trade networks. This study thus challenges the view of economic collapse, instead emphasising resilience and adaptation, and calling for an interdisciplinary approach to better understand the complexities of late Roman economic life and its long-term transformations.

This chapter examines the urban evolution of cities in the Eastern Mediterranean during Late Antiquity, focusing on their transformation from classical urban centres to more utilitarian and fortified settlements. It argues that rather than experiencing outright decline, cities in the East adapted to changing political, economic and religious realities. Archaeological evidence demonstrates a marked shift from monumental civic spaces to structures that emphasised military defence, religious identity and practical urban needs. The author discusses key aspects of urban change, including the gradual abandonment of traditional agoras, the decline of monumental temples and the repurposing of public buildings for Christian churches and administrative centres. The chapter also explores the impact of imperial policies on urban planning in reshaping cityscapes through large-scale church construction, fortification efforts and infrastructure projects. The increased militarisation of cities, with the establishment of fortified kastra and urban defences, is another major theme. Regional variations are examined, showing that while some cities, such as Constantinople and Thessaloniki, thrived under imperial patronage, others faced economic stagnation and contraction. The chapter concludes that while Late Antiquity brought profound transformations to urban life, cities in the East remained resilient, adapting to new social and political realities rather than simply collapsing.

This chapter examines the urban evolution of Trier in Late Antiquity, focusing on its transformation from a Roman provincial centre to an imperial capital. It discusses the city’s development from its foundation as Augusta Treverorum in the first century BCE to its peak as a key administrative and military hub in the late third and fourth centuries. This contribution integrates archaeological evidence, historical texts and urban-planning analysis, highlighting how Trier’s strategic location along the Moselle River contributed to its economic and political rise. The chapter also considers major infrastructure projects, including the construction of city walls, bridges, baths, an amphitheatre and a palace complex, demonstrating how imperial patronage shaped the city’s expansion. A significant theme is Trier’s role as an imperial residence under Constantine and his successors, with the city becoming a centre for coin production, governance and military strategy. The Christianisation of Trier is another focus, detailing the construction of basilicas, episcopal complexes and martyr shrines, which established it as an important religious centre. Despite political upheavals and invasions, Trier remained influential into the early medieval period, with the chapter concluding that its evolution reflects broader patterns of imperial consolidation, economic resilience and religious transformation in Late Antiquity.

This chapter examines the transformation of Jerusalem in Late Antiquity, focusing on its urban development, religious significance and shifting political landscape. It traces the city’s evolution from Roman Aelia Capitolina into a major Christian centre under Byzantine rule, emphasising the role of imperial patronage in reshaping its architecture and sacred spaces. Particular attention is given to the construction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, initiated by Constantine and consecrated in 335. This church became the focal point of Christian Jerusalem, inspiring the development of additional religious structures, including churches on Mount Zion, on the Mount of Olives and in Bethlehem. The chapter also explores the city’s expansion under Empress Eudocia and Emperor Justinian, discussing projects such as the Nea Church and the extension of the cardo. Further discussions examine the adaptation of existing Roman infrastructure, the conversion of pagan temples into Christian buildings, and the impact of imperial policies on the city’s layout. The chapter concludes by assessing the Persian conquest in 614 CE and the subsequent Islamic takeover in 638 CE, demonstrating how Jerusalem remained a contested and sacred space throughout Late Antiquity.

This chapter examines private architecture in Late Antiquity, focusing on the evolution of domestic structures and their role in social, political and religious life. It explores various building types, including domus, villas, insulae, palatia, praetoria and episcopia. The chapter argues that private architecture during this period was highly diverse, reflecting both continuity and transformation. While wealthy residences – whether aristocratic homes, episcopal residences or governor’s palaces – shared similar monumental features such as triclinia, courtyards, baths, and reception halls, often blurring the distinction between private and official spaces, imperial palaces frequently evolved from earlier residential buildings. At the same time, Christian bishops adapted aristocratic architectural models for their own use. Overall, archaeological evidence suggests that private architecture played a crucial role in expressing social status and power, with the design and decoration of homes reinforcing elite identity. At the same time, this study highlights how the economic and political shifts of Late Antiquity shaped domestic architecture, leading to both the persistence of elite housing and the gradual decline of multi-family insulae.

This chapter explores Jewish iconography in Late Antiquity, focusing on the evolution of visual representations in synagogue art and everyday objects. Drawing on archaeological remains from ancient Palestine and the Diaspora, it examines architectural decorations, mosaics, wall paintings and interior furnishings. Analysis of these remains reveals that Jewish iconography was not static but evolved dynamically in response to broader Graeco-Roman and early Christian artistic traditions. The chapter illustrates this by demonstrating how synagogue ornamentation combined traditional Jewish symbols – such as the menorah, Torah shrine and ritual objects – with motifs borrowed from surrounding cultures, including mythological figures and zodiac imagery. It also engages with the long-standing debate on aniconism in Judaism, arguing that figurative art was more prevalent than previously assumed. Emphasising that Jewish art served both religious and communal functions, the chapter highlights how it reinforced Jewish identity during a period of cultural transition.

This chapter examines the role of technology in Late Antiquity. It challenges the traditional view that the period was marked by technological stagnation. It argues that instead of focusing solely on innovation, historians should consider the continued use, adaptation and repurposing of existing technologies. It also highlights the survival and refinement of older methods, emphasising that technological choices were often influenced by social, political and environmental factors rather than pure efficiency. One of the chapter’s central discussions focuses on military technology, particularly the development of catapults. Analysing textual sources such as Vegetius’ Epitoma rei militaris and De rebus bellicis alongside archaeological evidence, the study reveals that military engineering remained highly sophisticated. The construction of catapults, their adaptation for different battlefield scenarios, and the organisation of state-run fabricae (weapons workshops) demonstrate that technological knowledge continued to be refined. Additionally, the chapter critiques the historiographical tendency to equate technological progress with economic growth, arguing that many technological decisions were driven by factors beyond economics. It concludes that Late Antiquity was not a period of decline but one of transformation, in which technological continuity and adaptation played a crucial role in maintaining societal structures.

This chapter examines the development of early Christian iconography, tracing how visual representations evolved between the third and fifth centuries. It explores a wide range of materials, including paintings, relief sculptures, mosaics, inscriptions and artefacts such as sarcophagi, lamps and glassware. Historical texts are also incorporated to provide context for the meanings behind Christian imagery. The chapter argues that early Christian art did not emerge in isolation but was heavily influenced by Roman artistic traditions. Many motifs, such as the Good Shepherd and the story of Jonah, were borrowed from Graeco-Roman visual culture and reinterpreted with Christian significance. It also addresses the debate over the absence of explicitly Christian imagery in the first two centuries CE, suggesting that early Christians likely relied on religiously ambiguous symbols before developing a distinct visual language. The discussion then shifts to the impact of imperial Christianity in the fourth century, which led to more monumental depictions of Christ, often portraying him as a ruler rather than a humble shepherd. Finally, the chapter highlights the crucial role of funerary art in shaping Christian visual culture, noting that many early depictions survived in catacombs and sarcophagi, reinforcing beliefs in salvation and resurrection.

This chapter examines late antique Armenia, focusing on its architectural developments, Christianisation and regional influences. It traces the evolution of Armenian church architecture between the fourth and seventh centuries, emphasising connections with Rome, Persia and Byzantium. The chapter discusses key archaeological findings, including churches, funerary monuments and inscriptions. Major sites like the basilica of Ereroykʿ, the church of Hṙipʿsimē and the patriarchal complexes of Duin and Zuartʿnocʿ reveal a shift from simple basilicas to complex domed designs. The chapter discusses innovations such as tetraconch and triconch plans and explores the role of elite patronage in church construction, as seen in the princely complex of Aruč. Rather than depicting Armenia as an isolated frontier, it argues that its architecture reflects strong ties with Syrian, Byzantine and Iranian traditions. Sculptural decoration, inscriptions and building techniques illustrate these cultural exchanges. While political shifts influenced construction, ongoing excavations continue to shape our understanding of Armenia’s late antique landscape. The chapter stresses the need for further archaeological research, particularly in under-explored areas, to provide a fuller picture of the region’s historical development.

This chapter focuses on the urban and rural landscapes of the Balkans in Late Antiquity, covering modern-day Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Kosovo, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Romania, Serbia and Slovenia . It examines how cities and countryside areas evolved between the third and seventh centuries, with a particular emphasis on the material traces of early Christianity. The chapter draws on archaeological evidence, historical texts and urban planning studies to highlight the transformation of key cities such as Thessaloniki, Nicopolis ad Istrum and Serdica (modern Sofia). This contribution argues that the Balkans served as a cultural and political bridge between Asia and Europe, influencing the spread of Christianity and shaping imperial policies. It also explores how urban centres adapted to economic shifts and military threats, with some cities reinforcing their fortifications while others declined. Thessaloniki, for instance, maintained its urban layout and economic role, even as certain Roman public buildings fell out of use. Religious change also played a crucial role in shaping the Balkan landscape. Christian basilicas replaced pagan temples, while monasteries and bishopric centres became focal points for local governance and cultural life. The chapter further addresses the challenges of dating archaeological sites, emphasising the need for more precise chronological frameworks.

This chapter examines the urban development of Constantinople in Late Antiquity, tracing its transformation from a small Greek settlement into the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. It focuses on three major phases of construction: Constantine’s foundation (324–37), the Theodosian expansion (379–450) and Justinian’s rebuilding efforts (527–65). The study explores key infrastructure projects, including city walls, forums, aqueducts, palaces, churches and harbours, demonstrating how these developments reshaped the city’s urban landscape. A central theme is the political and symbolic role of architecture in establishing Constantinople’s imperial identity. Constantine’s expansion laid the foundation for a monumental capital, incorporating existing Severan structures while introducing new landmarks such as the Forum of Constantine. The Theodosian period witnessed the construction of the formidable land walls and major religious buildings, further solidifying the city’s status as a Christian metropolis. Under Justinian, Constantinopolitan architecture reached its peak, with the reconstruction of Hagia Sophia serving as a defining moment in Byzantine building traditions. The chapter also addresses archaeological challenges, noting that while much of the ancient city has been lost due to war and modern urban development, ongoing excavations continue to provide valuable insights into Constantinople’s late antique transformation.

This chapter explores the archaeology of late antique Syria, emphasising its historical significance and research challenges. Syria has one of the highest concentrations of late antique sites, particularly in the Limestone Massif, yet modern national borders obscure historical connections with Lebanon, Jordan and Turkey. Drawing on historical texts, travel accounts and archaeological surveys, the chapter traces the development of research from early European explorers to twentieth-century French-led excavations. It examines the influence of colonial mandates and political changes, including the impact of the Syrian civil war on archaeological preservation. A central argument is that late antique Syria has been overlooked in favour of earlier Roman and later Islamic studies. Limited excavations, instability and destruction have further hindered research. However, the chapter stresses the importance of studying Syria’s role in connecting the Roman, Persian and early Islamic worlds. Instead of focusing solely on elite monuments, the chapter calls for research on everyday settlements to provide a fuller picture of Syrian society during Late Antiquity.

The Encyclopaedia of Late Antique Art and Archaeology seeks to fill a significant gap in historical research by placing art and archaeology at the forefront of late Roman and late antique studies. Recognising the need for a comprehensive and accessible reference, this work moves beyond the traditional focus on ‘early Christian archaeology’ to adopt a broader perspective. It highlights the dynamic interplay of Christianity, Judaism and Islam, challenging outdated notions of a fully Christianised Late Antiquity. Organised into six sections – architecture and iconography, artefacts and material evidence, urbanism and rural landscapes, regional and ethnic diversity, and key issues and debates – the encyclopaedia offers a structured, in-depth exploration of the field. With contributions from leading scholars, it synthesises archaeological discoveries to challenge narratives of decline, instead presenting Late Antiquity as an era of transformation and cultural fusion.