In the late fourth and early third centuries, Alexander III’s generals and philoi established new Hellenistic dynasties, several of which included the daughters of the most noble families of the former Achaemenid world throughout western Asia as their new dynastic wives. In addition to their diplomatic significance, these women were important in visual and material articulations of dynastic identity and dynastic rule. The public honors, coinage, and luxury portable objects associated with these women not only provide evidence for their physical movement across continents but also give us a glimpse into their roles in the making of Hellenistic queenship. This chapter examines select assemblages left by Roxane, Apama, and Amastris – all of whom were born into royal or noble families in Iran or central Asia, married Macedonian dynasts, and moved westward – as well as Stratonice, the daughter of a Macedonian king who moved eastward after marrying into the Seleucid dynasty. These case studies offer an art-historical and materially focused examination of Macedonian encounters with western Asia while demonstrating the ways that non-Macedonian and non-Greek women of the late fourth and early third centuries contributed to public expressions of imperial power and dynastic consolidation via objects of queenship across the Hellenistic world.

This chapter surveys the transformation of the North African countryside in Late Antiquity, analysing shifts in settlement patterns, agricultural production and economic structures from the late Roman period through the Arab conquest in 689. It highlights regional variations across ancient provinces such as Mauretania, Numidia, Africa Proconsularis, Byzacena and Tripolitana, emphasising that the rural landscape did not experience uniform decline but rather underwent adaptation and reorganisation. Discussing North Africa’s role as a key supplier of olive oil, grain, wine and fine ceramics, notably African Red Slip (ARS) pottery, the chapter challenges earlier assumptions that economic collapse followed the Vandal conquest in 439, showing instead that new industrialised production methods led to increased ARS exports during the late fifth century. However, the Byzantine reconquest in 539 did not reintegrate the region into the larger imperial economy as expected, instead fostering greater regionalisation and isolation. This contribution also addresses the Christianisation of the countryside, analysing the spread of monastic estates and bishoprics and their impact on land use. By examining archaeological surveys and pottery distribution, the chapter concludes that rural settlement patterns in North Africa were shaped by a combination of environmental, economic and political factors.

This chapter centres on the rural landscapes of the late Roman Eastern Empire, focusing on settlement patterns, economic structures and the integration of rural communities into broader imperial networks. It challenges older historiographical models that depict the countryside as declining in tandem with the urban world, arguing instead that many rural regions remained vibrant and adapted to shifting political and economic conditions. This investigation draws on archaeological surveys, architectural remains and epigraphic evidence to analyse how different rural settlements evolved. It contrasts the village-based economies of the Eastern Mediterranean with the villa-centric model of the western provinces, emphasising that villages in the East continued to thrive well into the Byzantine period. The chapter also highlights the role of religious transformation, documenting the conversion of pagan sanctuaries into Christian sites and the spread of monastic settlements in rural landscapes. Another key theme is connectivity, particularly how infrastructure such as roads and maritime trade routes sustained rural economies. The discussion of transhumance and agricultural production further illustrates the dynamism of the eastern countryside. While certain regions experienced decline due to warfare or shifting imperial priorities, the chapter presents the eastern rural world as an adaptive, resilient environment, rather than one in simple decay.

This chapter explores the urban and architectural evolution of Ravenna in Late Antiquity, focusing on its transformation from a relatively modest Roman settlement into a major political and religious centre. It examines how Ravenna served as the capital of the Western Roman Empire, the Ostrogothic Kingdom and the Byzantine Exarchate of Italy between 400 and 725 CE. The discussion highlights how Ravenna’s geographical setting – a marshy coastal landscape – shaped its urban development and archaeological record. The study assesses the city’s infrastructure, including its walls, aqueducts, palaces and religious buildings, demonstrating how imperial patronage played a decisive role in its growth. The construction of monumental churches such as the Basilica of San Vitale and Sant’Apollinare in Classe is explored as evidence of Ravenna’s rising Christian prominence. The chapter also details the impact of Theoderic’s rule, particularly in the adaptation of Roman architectural traditions for Ostrogothic purposes. Under Byzantine rule, Ravenna became a centre of ecclesiastical power, reflected in continued church-building projects. Despite political upheavals and economic fluctuations, Ravenna remained a dynamic and influential city. The chapter concludes by pointing out the challenges of archaeological research in the area, emphasising how ongoing excavations continue to refine our understanding of Ravenna’s late antique legacy.

Hellenistic queenship was richly represented across the eastern Mediterranean and western Asia from the fourth to second centuries BCE. From luxury portable objects to large-scale monuments, public ceremonies to sacred spaces, extant material and visual culture show us that royal women were central to the articulation of dynastic continuity and legitimacy. Queens were important subjects of representation (that were sometimes objects of contemplation) as well as patrons of art and architecture. The art history of Hellenistic queenship comprises an eclectic array of representational strategies in different settings, across a range of materials and media, from the colossal to the miniature. As such, this volume has explored a variety of different case studies from various regions and kingdoms: Hecatomnid Caria, Lycia, Sparta, Argead Macedon, Ptolemaic Egypt, Seleucid Asia, and Attalid Anatolia.

This chapter examines the evolution of monumental civic architecture in Late Antiquity, exploring how urban spaces and public buildings adapted to shifting political, social and economic conditions. Challenging the traditional ‘decline and fall’ narrative, it argues instead for a process of gradual transformation. While some cities in the Western Empire experienced a decline in public building activity, urban centres in the east continued to flourish, with new constructions and adaptations extending well into the Islamic period. In these cities, public buildings such as basilicas, baths and colonnaded streets were frequently repurposed rather than abandoned. Christianity played a crucial role in this shift, as bishops assumed civic responsibilities and redirected resources towards maintaining and adapting urban infrastructure. As a result, late antique cities remained vibrant, with economic and social life persisting despite structural changes. The chapter also highlights the significance of imperial patronage and contributions from the local elite in sustaining urban architecture. By reassessing civic architecture through archaeological and textual evidence, the study presents a more nuanced perspective – one that emphasises urban resilience and transformation rather than outright decline.

This chapter investigates the material culture of saint veneration in Late Antiquity, detailing how objects, architecture and inscriptions influenced devotional practices. It draws on a range of sources to investigate how saints were honoured and how their presence was made tangible through physical artefacts. The chapter argues that material culture played a crucial role in facilitating interactions between the living and the divine. Saints’ memorials, inscriptions and relics served as focal points for devotion, strengthening communal identity and religious experience. Key examples include the engraved mensa (table) from Khirbet Oum el-Ahdam, which was used for communal feasting in honour of martyrs, and wall paintings from Wadi Sarga, which depict saints in orans postures, underscoring their role as intercessors. The evidence suggests that material artefacts did more than simply commemorate saints – they actively shaped devotional practices and evolved over time to meet the needs of different generations.

This chapter explores the archaeology of late antique Rome, focusing on the city’s transformation between the third and eighth centuries. It examines architectural, epigraphic and material evidence to trace changes in urban infrastructure, social organisation and religious practices. Recent archaeological projects, including excavations at the Crypta Balbi and the imperial fora, have yielded significant insights into the reuse of urban spaces and shifting patterns of habitation. This study challenges earlier narratives that describe late antique Rome as a city in decline, instead presenting it as a dynamic environment where old structures were adapted to new functions. A major emphasis is placed on the integration of Christian and imperial elements in the cityscape. This investigation highlights the construction of monumental churches such as St Peter’s and the Lateran Basilica, which repurposed materials from earlier Roman buildings, reinforcing Christian authority while maintaining connections to imperial traditions. Another important aspect discussed is the evolution of private housing, with evidence indicating a gradual shift from elite domus to smaller, more communal living arrangements. The chapter concludes that late antique Rome was characterised by both continuity and transformation.

In the third century BCE, Ptolemy II, together with the architect Timochares, imagined a new kind of representation to commemorate his deceased sister and wife, Arsinoe II. The Elder Pliny explains how Timochares put his special knowledge of materials to work: he planned to construct the vaulting of Arsinoe’s Alexandrian temple out of lodestone – a dark mineral with magnetic properties – to suspend her partially iron portrait statue above the heads of viewers, achieving the effect of a levitating deity. Had the plans come to fruition, the visual experience would have, perhaps, filled the king’s subjects with terror and wonder.

This chapter explores the archaeology of late antique Egypt, discussing its diverse landscapes, urban centres and cultural transitions. It argues that Egypt’s long history and modern development have shaped archaeological research, with papyrology dominating due to the region’s arid climate preserving written records. To illustrate this the chapter examines papyri, inscriptions, settlements and religious structures. Greek texts dominate as a result of their administrative role, while Coptic gained prominence in the sixth century. Excavations reveal a varied urban landscape, from Alexandria’s intellectual hubs to Nile Valley and desert settlements. Sites like Kom el-Dikka in Alexandria and Karanis in the Fayum offer insights into daily life, while Christian sites illustrate religious shifts. A key argument is that Egypt’s late antique past is difficult to reconstruct due to modern occupation and destruction of later remains. The chapter emphasises the need to study non-elite settlements to build a fuller picture of society. Despite political instability and environmental threats, research in desert oases and urban centres continues to expand knowledge of late antique Egypt. Future efforts should focus on preserving and analysing everyday life remains rather than elite structures, ensuring a more balanced historical perspective.

This chapter examines the archaeology of identity in Late Antiquity, challenging traditional notions of a homogeneous Roman identity. It explores how individual and collective identities evolved between the fourth and seventh centuries, particularly as the Roman Empire fragmented and new cultural identities emerged. The chapter discusses a range of sources, including material culture, burial practices, inscriptions and architectural remains. It critiques past archaeological approaches that focused on elite identities while overlooking broader social diversity. By analysing artefacts such as clothing accessories, funerary goods and urban structures, it highlights how identity was fluid and shaped by factors such as status, gender and ethnicity. This investigation also integrates theoretical perspectives, including post-colonial critiques of ‘Romanisation’, and applies methodologies like isotope and aDNA analysis to reassess past assumptions. A major argument is that Late Antiquity was not just a transition from ‘Roman’ to ‘non-Roman’ identities but a period of complex renegotiation. While elite Romanitas persisted in some regions, new identities emerged through interactions with barbarian groups, Christianity and shifting power structures. The chapter ultimately calls for a more nuanced archaeological approach that moves beyond static labels, recognising identity as a dynamic and context-dependent phenomenon.

This chapter examines the development of illuminated manuscripts in Late Antiquity, focusing on their origins, evolution and cultural significance. It argues that illumination was not merely decorative but played a navigational, didactic and symbolic role, aiding text comprehension while reinforcing religious and political authority. Tracing the transition from papyrus scrolls to the codex, the chapter emphasises how the Christian adoption of the codex format facilitated the rise of manuscript illumination. It documents how the earliest illustrated Christian manuscripts emerged in Egypt, influenced by pagan scroll traditions, magical texts and the Book of the Dead. These manuscripts incorporated symbolic elements such as the ankh cross and interlace designs, which later became defining features of Coptic and Byzantine carpet pages. The study then shifts focus to early biblical illustration, highlighting works such as the Vienna Genesis, Quedlinburg Itala and Rabbula Gospels, which reflect the growing role of visual storytelling in Christian texts. The chapter concludes by emphasising the imperial patronage of illuminated books, noting Constantine’s commissioning of grand scriptural manuscripts and the development of treasure bindings adorned with ivory and gold. Ultimately, the study demonstrates how manuscript illumination evolved as a medium of authority, devotion and intellectual transmission across Late Antiquity and the early medieval world.

This chapter explores the architectural evolution of monastic settlements, tracing their development from their early beginnings in Late Antiquity to their eventual institutionalisation within the Christian Church. It examines the diverse forms of monastic architecture, ranging from isolated hermitic dwellings to large coenobitic monasteries, and the various factors that influenced their design. Providing a broad perspective on monastic life across regions such as Egypt, Palestine, Syria, Sinai, Nubia and Western Europe, the chapter argues that monastic architecture evolved in response to practical, spiritual and defensive needs. It highlights how early anchorites lived in secluded hermitages, often repurposing tombs and quarries, while later monastic communities adopted structured compounds featuring churches, refectories and defensive towers. Regional adaptations also played a key role, with fortified monasteries in Sinai, laurae and coenobia in Palestine, and the impact of pilgrimage shaping settlement patterns. Ultimately, the chapter demonstrates how monasteries functioned as economic centres, pilgrimage hubs and defensive structures. It also underscores how archaeological evidence challenges traditional textual narratives, revealing a more complex and pragmatic monastic lifestyle than literary sources often suggest.

This chapter explores late antique portraiture, centring on its stylistic evolution, its cultural significance and shifting scholarly interpretations. It examines a diverse range of materials, including sculptural portraits, reliefs, mosaics and coins, alongside historical texts that shed light on how portraiture was perceived and utilised during this period. The chapter traces the transition from the naturalistic imperial portraiture of the Roman era to the more stylised and symbolic depictions of the Late Antique and Byzantine periods. It analyses how portraiture evolved from realistic likenesses to abstract, hierarchical representations, particularly as a response to Christianity’s growing influence and the changing political landscape, and argues that late antique portraits should be viewed not as signs of artistic decline but rather as part of a broader transformation in both artistic and ideological expression. The chapter concludes that portraiture in Late Antiquity was not merely about depicting individuals; it played essential political, religious and social roles, reinforcing imperial authority and Christian ideals.

This chapter examines the transition of pagan architecture and religious practices in Late Antiquity, focusing on the treatment of Roman temples under Christian emperors. Drawing on legal texts, literature, inscriptions and archaeological findings, it evaluates whether temples were preserved, repurposed or destroyed. Challenging the common assumption of widespread temple destruction, it argues that such actions were neither systematic nor state-enforced. Instead, the chapter presents a nuanced perspective, demonstrating that many temples remained intact and were gradually adapted for secular or Christian purposes. Archaeological evidence suggests that abandonment and natural decay played a greater role in their decline than deliberate demolition. It also highlights how Christian emperors often sought to suppress pagan rituals while preserving architectural heritage, with legal measures typically prohibiting sacrifices rather than mandating temple destruction. By emphasising regional variations in temple transformations and critically assessing sources that exaggerate instances of destruction, the chapter challenges traditional narratives, offering a more complex understanding of religious and architectural change in Late Antiquity.