This chapter explores Jewish iconography in Late Antiquity, focusing on the evolution of visual representations in synagogue art and everyday objects. Drawing on archaeological remains from ancient Palestine and the Diaspora, it examines architectural decorations, mosaics, wall paintings and interior furnishings. Analysis of these remains reveals that Jewish iconography was not static but evolved dynamically in response to broader Graeco-Roman and early Christian artistic traditions. The chapter illustrates this by demonstrating how synagogue ornamentation combined traditional Jewish symbols – such as the menorah, Torah shrine and ritual objects – with motifs borrowed from surrounding cultures, including mythological figures and zodiac imagery. It also engages with the long-standing debate on aniconism in Judaism, arguing that figurative art was more prevalent than previously assumed. Emphasising that Jewish art served both religious and communal functions, the chapter highlights how it reinforced Jewish identity during a period of cultural transition.

This chapter examines the role of technology in Late Antiquity. It challenges the traditional view that the period was marked by technological stagnation. It argues that instead of focusing solely on innovation, historians should consider the continued use, adaptation and repurposing of existing technologies. It also highlights the survival and refinement of older methods, emphasising that technological choices were often influenced by social, political and environmental factors rather than pure efficiency. One of the chapter’s central discussions focuses on military technology, particularly the development of catapults. Analysing textual sources such as Vegetius’ Epitoma rei militaris and De rebus bellicis alongside archaeological evidence, the study reveals that military engineering remained highly sophisticated. The construction of catapults, their adaptation for different battlefield scenarios, and the organisation of state-run fabricae (weapons workshops) demonstrate that technological knowledge continued to be refined. Additionally, the chapter critiques the historiographical tendency to equate technological progress with economic growth, arguing that many technological decisions were driven by factors beyond economics. It concludes that Late Antiquity was not a period of decline but one of transformation, in which technological continuity and adaptation played a crucial role in maintaining societal structures.

This chapter examines the development of early Christian iconography, tracing how visual representations evolved between the third and fifth centuries. It explores a wide range of materials, including paintings, relief sculptures, mosaics, inscriptions and artefacts such as sarcophagi, lamps and glassware. Historical texts are also incorporated to provide context for the meanings behind Christian imagery. The chapter argues that early Christian art did not emerge in isolation but was heavily influenced by Roman artistic traditions. Many motifs, such as the Good Shepherd and the story of Jonah, were borrowed from Graeco-Roman visual culture and reinterpreted with Christian significance. It also addresses the debate over the absence of explicitly Christian imagery in the first two centuries CE, suggesting that early Christians likely relied on religiously ambiguous symbols before developing a distinct visual language. The discussion then shifts to the impact of imperial Christianity in the fourth century, which led to more monumental depictions of Christ, often portraying him as a ruler rather than a humble shepherd. Finally, the chapter highlights the crucial role of funerary art in shaping Christian visual culture, noting that many early depictions survived in catacombs and sarcophagi, reinforcing beliefs in salvation and resurrection.

The Ptolemaic basilissa’s body was a significant subject in royal art, appearing across various kinds of visual and material culture. In this chapter, I explore the different ways that Ptolemaic royal women “wore” the female body in their representations. By attending to how the royal female body was conceptualized, visualized, and materialized, I examine the importance of corporeality to Ptolemaic queenship. By the first quarter of the third century, figural representations of Ptolemaic royal women were proliferated via objects that circulated across the waterscapes and landscapes of Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean and were carved onto surfaces of colossal architecture for various viewing communities. One of the most striking aspects of the material record for the Ptolemaic dynasty is the relatively large number of extant figural representations of royal women – consisting of temple reliefs, statues in the round, mosaics, glyptic arts, and other luxury portable objects – compared to that of other Hellenistic dynasties.

This chapter examines late antique Armenia, focusing on its architectural developments, Christianisation and regional influences. It traces the evolution of Armenian church architecture between the fourth and seventh centuries, emphasising connections with Rome, Persia and Byzantium. The chapter discusses key archaeological findings, including churches, funerary monuments and inscriptions. Major sites like the basilica of Ereroykʿ, the church of Hṙipʿsimē and the patriarchal complexes of Duin and Zuartʿnocʿ reveal a shift from simple basilicas to complex domed designs. The chapter discusses innovations such as tetraconch and triconch plans and explores the role of elite patronage in church construction, as seen in the princely complex of Aruč. Rather than depicting Armenia as an isolated frontier, it argues that its architecture reflects strong ties with Syrian, Byzantine and Iranian traditions. Sculptural decoration, inscriptions and building techniques illustrate these cultural exchanges. While political shifts influenced construction, ongoing excavations continue to shape our understanding of Armenia’s late antique landscape. The chapter stresses the need for further archaeological research, particularly in under-explored areas, to provide a fuller picture of the region’s historical development.

The fourth century was a time of sweeping political, cultural, and social transformations, including profound changes in dynastic art. One such major change was that dynastic women began to appear in public art throughout the eastern Mediterranean, just before the military conquests of Alexander III. Fourth-century dynastic women were publicly active and could take on politically important roles, usually alongside their husbands or kings: they quelled arguments, arranged marriages for the poor, helped facilitate cases of manumission, and participated in royal spectacles, to name only a handful of examples. But what can their representations in public art tell us about the conceptual and political contours of dynastic femininity in the early fourth century? In this chapter, I examine the ways in which dynastic women from Lycia, Sparta, Caria, and Macedon figured as both subjects and patrons in monuments, using sculptural fragments, bases, inscriptions, and surviving textual records. Each of the select monuments under analysis illuminates how different communities represented the idealized dynastic woman – that is, a woman in close proximity to networks of power through marriage or by blood. As such, my examination of these examples will contribute to our understanding of the strategies that rulers developed to express dynastic legitimacy and continuity on the one hand and the ways in which non-dynastic people perceived queenship and its political contours via their own dedications of and engagements with representations of dynastic women on the other.

Representations of royal and dynastic women were not limited to honorific portrait statues in the Hellenistic world. In different regions of the vast Seleucid Empire, dynasts and subjects could evoke the presence of royal women through highly choreographed ephemeral spectacles and ritualized performances. Moreover, figural representations of queenly faces cannot easily or exclusively be interpreted as portraits of specific Seleucid queens. Rather, my analyses approach these queenly faces as potent symbols that communicated information about the Seleucid dynasty and ideas about Seleucid queenship. Here, I turn my focus to these diverse representational practices, as well as to images of queenly faces on crowns, coins, and sealings.

This chapter focuses on the urban and rural landscapes of the Balkans in Late Antiquity, covering modern-day Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Kosovo, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Romania, Serbia and Slovenia . It examines how cities and countryside areas evolved between the third and seventh centuries, with a particular emphasis on the material traces of early Christianity. The chapter draws on archaeological evidence, historical texts and urban planning studies to highlight the transformation of key cities such as Thessaloniki, Nicopolis ad Istrum and Serdica (modern Sofia). This contribution argues that the Balkans served as a cultural and political bridge between Asia and Europe, influencing the spread of Christianity and shaping imperial policies. It also explores how urban centres adapted to economic shifts and military threats, with some cities reinforcing their fortifications while others declined. Thessaloniki, for instance, maintained its urban layout and economic role, even as certain Roman public buildings fell out of use. Religious change also played a crucial role in shaping the Balkan landscape. Christian basilicas replaced pagan temples, while monasteries and bishopric centres became focal points for local governance and cultural life. The chapter further addresses the challenges of dating archaeological sites, emphasising the need for more precise chronological frameworks.

This chapter examines the urban development of Constantinople in Late Antiquity, tracing its transformation from a small Greek settlement into the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. It focuses on three major phases of construction: Constantine’s foundation (324–37), the Theodosian expansion (379–450) and Justinian’s rebuilding efforts (527–65). The study explores key infrastructure projects, including city walls, forums, aqueducts, palaces, churches and harbours, demonstrating how these developments reshaped the city’s urban landscape. A central theme is the political and symbolic role of architecture in establishing Constantinople’s imperial identity. Constantine’s expansion laid the foundation for a monumental capital, incorporating existing Severan structures while introducing new landmarks such as the Forum of Constantine. The Theodosian period witnessed the construction of the formidable land walls and major religious buildings, further solidifying the city’s status as a Christian metropolis. Under Justinian, Constantinopolitan architecture reached its peak, with the reconstruction of Hagia Sophia serving as a defining moment in Byzantine building traditions. The chapter also addresses archaeological challenges, noting that while much of the ancient city has been lost due to war and modern urban development, ongoing excavations continue to provide valuable insights into Constantinople’s late antique transformation.

For the Attalid dynasty, royal mothers were central figures in royal monuments and public honors. While other dynasties I have discussed thus far – the Argeads, Ptolemies, and Seleucids – likewise stressed the importance of maternal qualities in queens through their emphasis on fertility, continuity of a dynastic line, and care for subjects and communities, much of the Attalid kingdom’s dynastic monument-building stressed the queen’s role as a mother, and all that entailed. So much so that the Attalid queen’s maternal qualities were even highlighted in monuments commemorating military victory and dynastic kingship. This emphasis not only augmented Attalid themes of “self-conscious filial, fraternal, and conjugal ‘values’” of monarchy, as scholars have already explored, but also articulated key notions of Attalid queenship. In this chapter, I build on this robust scholarship by considering how the Attalid royal mother (as well as other queenly and maternal figures) fit into visual narratives and monument landscapes of divine and dynastic triumph, and how this figure shaped cultic life and commemorative practices.

This chapter explores the archaeology of late antique Syria, emphasising its historical significance and research challenges. Syria has one of the highest concentrations of late antique sites, particularly in the Limestone Massif, yet modern national borders obscure historical connections with Lebanon, Jordan and Turkey. Drawing on historical texts, travel accounts and archaeological surveys, the chapter traces the development of research from early European explorers to twentieth-century French-led excavations. It examines the influence of colonial mandates and political changes, including the impact of the Syrian civil war on archaeological preservation. A central argument is that late antique Syria has been overlooked in favour of earlier Roman and later Islamic studies. Limited excavations, instability and destruction have further hindered research. However, the chapter stresses the importance of studying Syria’s role in connecting the Roman, Persian and early Islamic worlds. Instead of focusing solely on elite monuments, the chapter calls for research on everyday settlements to provide a fuller picture of Syrian society during Late Antiquity.

The Encyclopaedia of Late Antique Art and Archaeology seeks to fill a significant gap in historical research by placing art and archaeology at the forefront of late Roman and late antique studies. Recognising the need for a comprehensive and accessible reference, this work moves beyond the traditional focus on ‘early Christian archaeology’ to adopt a broader perspective. It highlights the dynamic interplay of Christianity, Judaism and Islam, challenging outdated notions of a fully Christianised Late Antiquity. Organised into six sections – architecture and iconography, artefacts and material evidence, urbanism and rural landscapes, regional and ethnic diversity, and key issues and debates – the encyclopaedia offers a structured, in-depth exploration of the field. With contributions from leading scholars, it synthesises archaeological discoveries to challenge narratives of decline, instead presenting Late Antiquity as an era of transformation and cultural fusion.

This chapter explores late antique wall painting, with special emphasis on its stylistic transformation, evolving iconography and the challenges of preservation and interpretation. It traces the shift from illusionistic Roman painting to the more abstract, linear styles that characterised Late Antiquity. A central argument is that late antique wall painting represents not a decline in artistic quality but rather an adaptive response to new cultural, religious and spatial demands. The chapter examines the rise of Liniendekoration (linear decoration), a geometric style that became dominant in funerary contexts, particularly in Roman catacombs, Egyptian monasteries and Mediterranean hypogea. It also explores the coexistence of early Christian imagery with traditional pagan motifs, emphasising continuity rather than abrupt change. In analysing these shifts, the chapter highlights how late antique painters simplified classical techniques in response to changing workshop practices, economic factors and environmental constraints. It also addresses key methodological challenges, including dating wall paintings, identifying regional styles and assessing the influence of early Christian and Jewish artistic traditions. This study stresses the crucial role of wall painting in Late Antiquity as a medium for shaping religious and social identities, demonstrating its artistic innovation and cultural significance.

This chapter discusses the development of Jewish synagogue architecture in Late Antiquity, tracing its evolution from the early centuries to the more monumental structures of the fourth to sixth centuries. Drawing on a range of sources, it explores how synagogue architecture varied across regions, reflecting local styles, communal preferences and interactions with surrounding Christian and pagan cultures. While early synagogues primarily functioned as spaces for Torah readings, later structures became more elaborate, incorporating decorative elements such as Jewish symbols (e.g. the menorah, Torah shrine and ritual objects) and even figural representations – challenging traditional assumptions about aniconism in Judaism. The chapter also addresses debates over synagogue chronology, arguing that established typologies, such as Galilean-type and Byzantine-type synagogues, require re-evaluation in the light of recent archaeological discoveries. It emphasises that synagogue architecture was shaped not only by religious traditions but also by broader social and political factors. The presence of monumental synagogues in Late Antiquity suggests that Jewish communities remained active and resilient even under Christian rule.