This chapter focuses on the transformation of rural landscapes in the western Roman Empire during Late Antiquity, analysing shifts in settlement patterns, economic structures and agrarian practices. It highlights the increasing availability of archaeological data over the past two decades, which has reinforced the idea that rural experiences during this period varied significantly across regions. Rather than a uniform decline, the countryside exhibited multiple trajectories, including contraction, reorganisation and, in some cases, expansion. A major theme is the decline of the villa system and the parallel emergence or resurgence of upland settlements and forested regions as integral components of rural economies. This study argues that these changes were not simply responses to political fragmentation but reflected broader socio-economic transformations, including shifts in land ownership, subsistence strategies and local production systems. It also examines the interplay between long-distance trade and localised economies, challenging the notion that rural economies collapsed entirely after the fall of Rome. The chapter further critiques traditional narratives that frame rural change through the binary lens of ‘continuity versus decline’. Instead, it advocates for a more nuanced approach that recognises both persistence and adaptation in late antique countryside economies.

This chapter explores the role of metalwork in Late Antiquity, with particular focus on the production, distribution and significance of gold, silver, copper, iron, lead and tin artefacts. It examines metal extraction processes, manufacturing techniques and the various ways in which metal objects were used in both secular and religious contexts. Drawing on archaeological evidence, chemical analysis and written sources, the chapter highlights how the study of metalwork provides valuable insights into the economic structures and political landscape of the late antique period. Rather than reflecting decline, late antique metalwork demonstrates adaptation to new demands. Gold and silver, used for coinage, jewellery and ceremonial objects, continued to be produced in both state-run and private workshops, with Constantinople, Antioch and Alexandria emerging as key centres. Silver plate played an essential role in imperial gift-giving and church donations, while stamped silver objects indicate a sophisticated state-controlled production system. The chapter also examines the continued production of copper alloys and iron, which were essential for military equipment, everyday utensils and monumental architecture, as well as lead and tin, which were widely used in construction, plumbing and pilgrimage objects.

This chapter explores the history and archaeology of Antioch in Late Antiquity, analysing the city’s evolution from its Seleucid foundation to its prominence as a Roman, Byzantine and early Islamic centre. A key argument is that Antioch’s transformation was a story not of decline but of adaptation, shaped by political shifts, natural disasters and evolving architectural traditions. This study highlights the challenges faced by early excavations, particularly the Princeton University-led campaign in the 1930s, which struggled with sedimentation, modern urban encroachment and a focus on decorative mosaics rather than structural remains. Despite these setbacks, that project yielded significant insights into Antioch’s topography, including the layout of its colonnaded streets, fora and fortifications. The chapter also examines the role of imperial patronage in reshaping the city, with figures like Constantine, Theodosius and Justinian commissioning extensive rebuilding efforts, including churches, palaces and defensive walls. While earthquakes, Persian invasions and environmental challenges altered the urban fabric, Antioch retained its status as a major intellectual, religious and economic hub well into the early Islamic period.

This chapter examines the diverse groups of Eastern Europe in Late Antiquity, emphasising their interactions with Rome and Byzantium rather than viewing them as isolated. It focuses on groups such as the Goths, Huns, Gepids, Bulgars and Avars, analysing their political structures, military tactics and economies. Using archaeological evidence – settlements, burials and trade artefacts – alongside historical sources like Jordanes, Procopius and Ammianus Marcellinus, the chapter explores Gothic migration through the Wielbark and Černjachov cultures and the role of the Huns in reshaping power dynamics. Roman influence is evident in diplomacy, material culture and religion, particularly through Ulfila’s missionary work among the Goths. Rather than framing ‘barbarian invasions’ as simple military conquests, the study highlights complex cultural exchanges and the gradual integration of these societies into the post-Roman world. It argues that Eastern European groups were active agents in shaping medieval Europe rather than mere recipients of Roman influence. Migration, identity and power are shown to be fluid, challenging traditional narratives.

This chapter explores the transformation of epigraphy in Late Antiquity, examining how inscriptions evolved in form, function and visibility between the third and seventh centuries. It discusses a wide range of inscriptional materials, including monumental inscriptions, funerary epitaphs, dedicatory plaques and graffiti, emphasising how changes in literacy, religious practices and political structures influenced their production and use. A key argument is that inscriptions in Late Antiquity shifted from primarily verbal communication to a more visual, symbolic and performative role. This transition is particularly evident in the increasing prominence of monograms, Christograms and abbreviated script, which prioritised recognisability over readability. The study also highlights the growing integration of religious elements in epigraphic practice, showing how Christian inscriptions, often featuring biblical quotations or crosses, became dominant in both private and public spaces. Additionally, the chapter explores regional variations in epigraphic density, noting that while inscriptions declined in some western provinces, they remained widely used in the Eastern Mediterranean. The digitisation of inscriptions has greatly expanded access to this material. The chapter concludes that epigraphy in Late Antiquity reflected broader cultural transformations, evolving from an elite-driven practice to a medium deeply connected to religious identity and social cohesion.

This is a study of religion and cult in Hellenistic temples and sanctuaries with special reference to the incorporation of the Roman Imperial cult in Anatolian temples.

This is a chapter on the architectural analysis and comparison of the Artemis Temple of Sardis and other Hellenistic temples with special reference to their architectonic qualities explicated through the philosophies of Jonathan Kepler and Louis I. Kahn.

This is a description of the Temple of Artemis at Sardis by early travelers and artist and a visual record of their drawings and paintings.

This is a summary description of the Temple of Artemis at Sardis and its construction history as revealed through its two phases of excavation, 1910-1914 and 1958-current.