The chapter surveys the evidence from colonial sites that were founded or resettled in the early part of the 2nd century BCE, concentrating on the well-documented cases of Cosa, Luna, Puteoli, and Aquileia. The discussion emphasizes how the physical aspect of colonial settlements developed beyond the initial foundation through the continued interaction between colonists of different backgrounds and locals, often combining the efficient management of labor resources with the broader need to build new communal identities.

The chapter expands the analysis by comparing and contrasting urban and rural patterns across different environmental zones of the Roman Campagna, focusing specifically on the role of villa architecture. Whereas in the tuff region closer to Rome concrete construction lagged behind the early phase of the technique in the metropolis, the limestone architecture in the territory of neighboring Tibur shows a more complex pattern, reflecting how the diffusion of monumental rural residence in areas with easier access to both key ingredients for high-quality mortars, volcanic ash and lime, could have triggered technological change.

The chapter analyzes the relationship between building techniques and urbanization processes in Pre-Roman Pompeii, revealing the correlation between social status and the ability and drive to innovate in the field of domestic architecture, and reconstructing the pace at which the technology was extended to public building. The evidence from Capua and Cumae, two major urban sites that were incorporated under a Roman praefectura just after the Second Punic War, provides important parallels to contextualize the Pompeian pattern within the regional phenomenon and to measure the impact (or lack thereof) of direct Roman political influence.

The cult of Castor and Pollux in Rome possessed extraordinary resonance and longevity: they were first worshipped in a public cult in the city soon after the ousting of the kings and the foundation of the Republic in the early fifth century bc. A thousand years later, in the late fifth century ad, Pope Gelasius I complained about their continued popularity, for the people of Rome refused to stop worshipping the brother gods.1

The gods of ancient Rome were thought to possess a wide range of responsibilities towards their mortal worshippers. Soldiers might call upon Mars to protect them whilst on campaign, artisans laboured under the guidance of Minerva, and farmers looked to Ceres to ensure a bounteous crop.1 Some gods possessed many roles: Apollo was connected to poets, oracles and medicine, but not always alone: other gods also possessed oracular shrines, such as Zeus at Dodona, and Apollo also shared his medical knowledge with his son, Aesculapius.2 The Dioscuri also participated in this network of divine responsibilities. They were associated with the followers of their own athletic pursuits: horsemanship and boxing, as well as ensuring the safety of sailors and, owing to their own bond, serving as examples of fraternal piety.

Gods were often thought to affect the human world through their actions: responding to vows and oaths; sending signs through auguries and auspices; and, at times, drawing on their power over the mortal realm to ensure a desired outcome. Most chose these more subtle ways of communicating their will to their worshippers, but some took it a step further and manifested themselves in human form, as an epiphany. Castor and Pollux were unusual in the number of their epiphanies: no fewer than nine epiphanies are reported to have occurred in Italy or connected to Roman interests elsewhere in the Mediterranean. These epiphanies are not simply proof of the divine brothers’ power but are also closely bound to the political system of Rome: their first epiphany preserved the Republic at its very inception, while later epiphanies were used to claim the gods’ favour for prominent generals. Further consideration of these epiphanies therefore suggests the variety of perspectives and responses of different individuals regarding interactions between gods and humans.