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This paper presents an analysis of the decapitated head found in 2020 under the collapsed wall of the Cantabrian oppidum of La Loma. This settlement was besieged and destroyed by the Roman Army during the Cantabrian Wars (29–16 BCE), either towards the end of the military campaign directed by Octavius Augustus (26 BC) himself, or during the subsequent campaign, commanded by Gaius Antistius Vetus (26–24 BCE). Radiocarbon dating, taphonomical and anthropological analysis, and DNA analysis assign the skull to one of the defenders of the hillfort. This man’s head would have been exposed on the walls as a symbol of victory before they were razed to prevent reoccupation of the settlement.
Herodotus adapts Homeric techniques for manipulating time as a means of structuring an extensive narrative. Like the poet, he uses anachronies (analepses and prolepses) to expand a chronologically focused main story – especially narratorial anachronies that address issues of geographical, ethnographical, and historical significance. The importance of epic precedent is especially visible in the open-ended closure of Herodotus’ narrative, and the sense that it creates of the Histories as being, like an epic poem, both a self-contained whole and part of a larger story to be continued. Herodotus also follows Homer’s lead with regard to narrative rhythm and narrative frequency. Like the epics, the Histories slow down markedly in the climactic stage of the story, and in both authors large-scale repeating narratives serve to juxtapose a character’s version of events with the primary narrator’s, or with another character’s, as a means of highlighting personality traits or thematic issues.
Varying degrees of tragic stylization are also visible in other stories of Persian and Hellenic monarchs. Tragic effects cluster at the beginning and end of Herodotus’ “biography” of Cyrus. The story of his birth has folktale roots enhanced by various tragic features (intra-familial violence, fated doom precipitated by preventive measures, a variation on the Atreusmahl myth); the story of his last campaign includes tragic vocabulary and a corrective reference to the Aeschylean law of “learning through suffering.” His successor Cambyses is portrayed as a tragic protagonist on his deathbed, when he learns “too late” the true meaning of divine communications he had previously misinterpreted, with disastrous personal and political consequences. Among Greek tyrants, Herodotus portrays the Samian Polycrates and the Corinthian Periander in tragic fashion, the latter in a narrative that bears several hallmarks of Sophoclean tragedy, including sibling conflict over devotion to a dead parent (cf. the playwright’s Electra).