INTRODUCTION

This paper consists of a general progress report rather than a presentation of results: various detailed accounts have been and are being published elsewhere (Ruggles 1981, 1982, 1983). It is written upon the completion of a 31/2;-month continuous period of surveying work in Scotland during May – August 1981, before any processing of the raw field data has even begun.

Introduction

Since 1978, the Institutes of Astronomy and Prehistory of the Ruhr-University Bochum collaborated in an interdisciplinary project to investigate neolithic orientations. Data on over 2200 finds have been collected and prepared for electronic data processing. One of the aims was to establish a catalogue of minimal knowledge in geometry and astronomy in neolithic times. Initially, the well-documented Bohemian-Moravian bell beaker and corded ware cultures were selected, because in two previous papers U. Fischer (1953, 1956) showed their tendency for non-uniform orientation. Since both cultures terminate the neolithic epoch, in 1980 an early-neolithic culture – linear pottery – was added to the program. Due to the relatively homogeneous cultural pattern of linear pottery, data from a larger region were collected, ranging from Alsace to Slovakia.

ARCHAEOASTRONOMY AT CALLANISH

The Standing Stones of Callanish on the Isle of Lewis have been referred to, with some justification, as the ‘Stonehenge of the Hebrides’. They hold a special place in the history of archaeoastronomy. Quasi-astronomical functions were ascribed to the site by at least five authors in the 18th and 19th centuries (Toland 1726; Headrick 1808; MacCulloch 1824; Callender 1854; Kerr 1873). The archaeoastronomers Lewis (1900) and Lockyer (1909) also referred to Callanish.

In 1912, Somerville was the first to complete on-site astronomical research and he identified an alignment to a lunar extreme. This was the first suggestion that prehistoric man in Britain had established lunar alignments. Somerville's paper, and a visit to Callanish in 1934, were the original inspirations for Thom's detailed studies on megalithic sites (e.g. Thom 1967; Thom 1971; Thom & Thom 1978).

Hawkins' computer studies of Stonehenge (1963) were followed by a similar study of Callanish (Hawkins 1965). Ruggles and his colleagues' objective methods for determining indicated declinations were given an initial trial at the sites around Callanish (Cooke etal. 1977).

THE SITES

Węsiory (ϕ = 54° 13′. 3 N, λ = 17°51′. 0 E)

This site was first mentioned in 1938 (Petsch 1938), but was not excavated until the late 1950s (Kmieciński 1958–1968). It consists of 4 rings (2 of which are incomplete) and 20 barrows situated on the shores of a picturesque lake.

Odry (ϕ = 53° 54′. 0 N, λ = 17° 59′. 7 E)

The stone rings at Odry have been, very well known for more than 100 years. Therefore we do not want to repeat everything that has been written about them. All that we can state here is that this cemetrey consists of 10 rings and 27 burial barrows, but there are many more graves with no recognizable marking on the surface.

Odry is best known, of course, because of P. Stephan's (1914) astronomical theory and more recent work by R. Müller (1934, 1970), where it is pointed out that the structure of this site is oriented to the four cardinal points as well as to the solstices.

The papers in this book are concerned with shedding light on a controversial aspect of European prehistory, especially that of north–west Europe: was astronomy practised here in the late neolithic and bronze ages, and, if so, what was its purpose? These questions are of obvious interest to prehistorians, but modern interest in them has been stimulated largely by those whose professional background is in the pure and applied sciences, while they raise technical issues which have aroused the interest of statisticians and astronomers. The diverse backgrounds of the authors of these papers reflect the multidisciplinary approach which the subject deserves and, indeed, requires.

The papers were presented at an international symposium on archaeoastronomy that was held at The Queen's College, Oxford, from 4 to 9 September, 1981. All the invited papers dealing with ancient astronomy in the old world are included, except for one introductory paper on the astronomical background, and the volume also contains a wide selection of the contributed papers, some of which were presented as posters. Papers dealing with American archaeoastronomy will be found in a companion volume edited by A.F. Aveni.

It is a pleasure to thank the authors of these papers for the time they have devoted to the preparation of their typescripts, and the staff of Cambridge University Press for their careful and expeditious production of this volume.

INTRODUCTION

This paper is based on the results of a study carried out in the period 1973 to 1976 in which a detailed survey was made of the stone alignments of S.W. Ireland and hypotheses concerning their astronomical, metrological and morphological attributes were tested (Ni Loingsigh 1976). Only the astronomical results are considered here.

The definition of a stone alignment,as accepted for this work, is three or more standing stones, intervisible and in a straight line. There are two major concentrations of such sites in Ireland, one in the southwest (i.e. counties Cork and Kerry) and the other in Northern Ireland (counties Derry, Tyrone and Fermanagh in particular).

INTRODUCTION

Our knowledge of megaliths can come only from the remains themselves. These consist of standing stones, their positions relative to one another, to tumuli, to mounds, and to nearby tracks on the ground.

INTRODUCTION

For at least fifteen years a considerable controversy has flared intermittently in the field of Neolithic studies in Britain - one which concerns the fairly sophisticated astronomical functions and geometrical qualities attributed to stone circle and standing stone sites all over the country by Alexander Thom. Quite markedly differing positions have been taken up by archaeologists and by other scientists interested in the subject, and the debate shows no sign of dying down; on the contrary phrases like ‘semi-lunacy’ and ‘deluded men’ continue to be hurled by defenders of the established order (Daniel 1981, 87).

Anyone with a professional interest in this problem has three broad choices when faced with such a potentially embarrassing situation.

(A) INTRODUCTION “The occurrence of orientation in prehistoric structures has long been noticed. It has not, however, received from investigators much more than a passing comment, such as, ‘the barrow is directed to the eastward’, or, ‘the entrance to the chamber faces the north-west’.” (Somerville, 1923, 193).

Sixty years later Somerville would be less disappointed with the attitudes of archaeologists. He might, however, be disconcerted to find that much of the effort dedicated to archaeo-astronomical research is misdirected, excellent in its scientific approach but fallacious in its interpretations.

Introduction

The astronomical interpretation of stone circles and standing stones has a long history; in the late seventeenth century, for example, Martin Martin, writing about the Ring of Brodgar and the Stones of Stenness in Orkney, records that ‘Several of the Inhabitants have a Tradition that the Sun was worshipped in the larger, and the Moon in the lesser Circle’ (1716, 365). In recent years a scientific basis for interpretation of the archaeological evidence in astronomical terms has been proposed by Alexander Thom (Thom, A. 1967; 1971; Thom & Thom 1978). In 1965 he began his introduction to megalithic astronomy: ‘Much has been written for and against the astronomical significance of the stone circles, stone alignments, etc., which are scattered throughout these islands and indeed much further afield. There is, however, universal agreement that the erectors, herein called for convenience Megalithic man, marked the rising and setting points of the solsticial Sun’ (Thom, A. 1965, 1).

Introduction

The valley of Barbrook on Big Moor in Derbyshire was the site. of a major prehistoric settlement (Radley 1966, Burl 1976). The moor contains the remains of a number of stone circles, earthen enclosures, standing stones and cairns, some of which have been shown by Lewis (1966) to have existed in Neolithic and Early Bronze age times. One of the stone circles, Barbrook 1, has been claimed by Thom (1967) and by Barnatt (1978) to have been used by prehistoric man for astronomical purposes. In addition, Thom (1967) has suggested that Barbrook 1 and another nearby stone circle Barbrook 3 (also known as Owler Bar) were constructed according to an accurate geometrical method (Thom type B circles).

In order to make an objective assessment of the astronomical and geometrical claims two projects were carried out:

1. (i) We have accurately surveyed possible sightlines following the criteria suggested by Cooke et al. (1977) and have assessed their significance.

2. […]