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The distinction between ‘full verbs’ and ‘auxiliaries’ is not relevant to tense: criteria of compatibility with temporal adverbs etc. suggest that separate tense selections are associated with the modal and aspectual auxiliaries, which are accordingly analysed as main verbs in deep structure. Deep tense, a ternary system, is contrasted with the binary surface-tense system: deep tense is marked by conjunctions, by temporal specifiers, and by the class of the preceding verb, as well as by surface tense inflections; while surface tense marks the axis of orientation and unreality as well as deep tense proper. Co-occurrence relations between tenses and temporal specifiers are examined; the last section deals with the realunreal contrast in if clauses.
Numerals share with pronouns the honor of being the best criteria of linguistic relationship; and yet among the names of the digits we find more exceptions to the principle of regular phonetic development, probably, than anywhere else in an equal group of unquestioned cognates. The exceptions arise, in the main, from the fact that the words are in use so closely associated with one another that they affect one another's forms.
Much has been written on the subject of madness in the ancient world. Historians of science have discussed the prevalence of mental diseases, their classification, diagnosis, and treatment, as well as the explanations of them put forward by the adherents of different philosophical and physiological doctrines. The representations of madness in literature and the popular attitude toward it have been analyzed, while the controversies in regard to some details of the Roman law on the matter are apparently not yet settled. To the question however of the Greek or Latin vocabulary describing madness, little attention has been paid. It is from this point of view that the present study has been undertaken.
This paper has a threefold purpose. It aims first to call attention to shortcomings in the existing theory of internal reconstruction. Second, it makes suggestions for a revised theory. And finally, it illustrates and amplifies these suggestions by applying them to the reconstruction of pre-Seneca from the synchronic data available in my Seneca morphology.
The Shasta language of northern California and southern Oregon has a long history of relevance for Hokan studies. In 1905 R. B. Dixon presented evidence to show that J. W. Powell's Palaihnihan family (1891), comprising Achumawi (Achomawi) and Atsugewi, was related to a group of Shasta dialects, some of which had been newly discovered by him. A. S. Gatschet had come to the same conclusion much earlier, as reported by Powell (1891.98), but did not present his evidence.