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16140 results in Animal behaviour

Page 83 of 807

  • 18 - Tortoises – Cold-Blooded Cognition: How to Get a Tortoise Out of Its Shell

  • Edited by Nereida Bueno-Guerra, Federica Amici, Universität Leipzig
  • Book:
    Field and Laboratory Methods in Animal Cognition
    Published online:
    30 July 2018
    Print publication:
    09 August 2018, pp 401-419

  • Summary

    Chelonia (turtles, terrapins and tortoises) have traditionally been considered to be “sluggish and unintelligent creatures” (Yerkes 1901, p. 520) and have largely been ignored in the study of animal cognition. However, more recent research has revealed an impressive suite of cognitive abilities in this group. But how do you ask a tortoise what it knows? We will describe the approaches we have thus far taken in the study of cognition in our model species, the red-footed tortoise (Chelonoidis carbonaria) – including work on visual cognition, spatial cognition, social learning and memory –, examining pros and cons. This chapter will subsequently discuss general issues related to working with chelonia, such as temperature and motivation: testing a tropical tortoise in a cold room, for instance, fundamentally impacts the ability of the tortoise to demonstrate its cognitive abilities. Chelonia are not necessarily motivated by the same things as mammals and different species may be motivated by different rewards, necessitating a thorough understanding of the species before embarking on experiments. We finish with an overview of techniques that we have used for investigating cognition in this species.

  • 13 - Meerkats – Identifying Cognitive Mechanisms Underlying Meerkat Coordination and Communication: Experimental Designs in Their Natural Habitat

  • Edited by Nereida Bueno-Guerra, Federica Amici, Universität Leipzig
  • Book:
    Field and Laboratory Methods in Animal Cognition
    Published online:
    30 July 2018
    Print publication:
    09 August 2018, pp 286-307

  • Summary

    Meerkats (Suricata suricatta), a cooperatively breeding mongoose living under high predation pressure, have evolved elaborate communication systems to coordinate their activities. In situ observations of vocal and olfactory signal use and composition, as well as testing receiver responses to specific known stimuli within so called bio-assays have revealed a wealth of variation in signal information, which is perceived and used by receivers. Similarly, receivers show variability in their responses depending on aspects of the signaller, and also based on their own personal situation or experience. In this chapter I discuss experimental designs that address how to identify the underlying cognitive mechanism in vocal and olfactory communication, and refer to studies on social learning and methodologies to identify traditions in habituated meerkats in their natural habitat. In particular I describe the habituation process from completely wild groups to the stage where we can follow them within 1 m while foraging. I also describe presentation experiments involving acoustic, olfactory or visual stimuli, and what potential problems need to be considered when performing such manipulations. 

  • 2 - Bats – Using Sound to Reveal Cognition

  • Edited by Nereida Bueno-Guerra, Federica Amici, Universität Leipzig
  • Book:
    Field and Laboratory Methods in Animal Cognition
    Published online:
    30 July 2018
    Print publication:
    09 August 2018, pp 31-59

  • Summary

    With almost 1300 species all around the globe, bats are probably the most diverse group within the mammalian order, exhibiting an immense range of foraging strategies, social behaviours and navigation skills. The reliance of many bats on echolocation to perceive the world makes them especially useful for cognitive studies. By recording bats' sound emissions, researchers can gain access to the sensory world of the bat, documenting how it allocates sensory attention in space and detects the presence of new stimuli. Moreover, bats rely on a range of sensory modalities including vision, passive audition, olfaction and even magnetic and thermal sensing. Beyond sensing, bats' movement in three dimensions over very large environmental scales, their often complex social life style and their unique longevity (relative to body size) make them intriguing models for studying cognition. However, studies of bat cognition are still sparse, mostly focusing on the psychophysics of echolocation. In this chapter, we highlight many of the advantages and difficulties of studying bat cognition. We point to some of the interesting open questions in the field, offering practical advice for the researcher who has never worked with bats before.

  • 7 - Dolphins and Whales – Taking Cognitive Research Out of the Tanks and into the Wild

  • Edited by Nereida Bueno-Guerra, Federica Amici, Universität Leipzig
  • Book:
    Field and Laboratory Methods in Animal Cognition
    Published online:
    30 July 2018
    Print publication:
    09 August 2018, pp 146-176

  • Summary

    Whales and dolphins have long life spans and many species live in complex social groups. Their sensory and cognitive systems are adapted to the underwater world, and they have convergently evolved complex acoustic processes to help negotiate social relationships. Despite being valuable study systems for studying cognition and its evolution, they are inherently difficult to study: only a few species are kept in captivity, captive animals may not always be reflective of their wild counterparts, field research is costly and wild animals typically spend the majority of their time out of the researchers’ view. In spite of these challenges, several long-term studies have yielded fascinating insights into the cognitive processes involved in social behaviour, foraging and orientation. In addition, recent advances in technology are beginning to provide valuable insights into the animals’ underwater behaviours and movements over larger temporal and spatial scales. While such studies have largely focused on ecological, physiological and behavioural aspects, their potential to study cognition is considerable. This chapter provides a summary of the cognitive research on cetaceans, and critically reviews the main methodologies used to study cognition in these animals, highlighting potential weaknesses and identifying best practice in study design and data analysis.

  • 17 - Spiders – Hints for Testing Cognition and Learning in Jumping Spiders

  • Edited by Nereida Bueno-Guerra, Federica Amici, Universität Leipzig
  • Book:
    Field and Laboratory Methods in Animal Cognition
    Published online:
    30 July 2018
    Print publication:
    09 August 2018, pp 381-400

  • Summary

    Jumping spiders (Araneae, Family Salticidae) are an appealing group for the study of learning and cognition because of their alert, active behaviour and reliance on visual information that is easy to experimentally manipulate. In this chapter, we describe the typical morphology, behaviour, and ecology of jumping spiders, with an emphasis on the influence of these characteristics on study design. Particularly important is the unusual visual system of jumping spiders: the secondary eyes are particularly attuned to motion, and the visual field almost completely surrounds the spider, meaning that special care needs to be taken to avoid distracting spiders in behavioural tests. Jumping spiders also incorporate other sensory modalities into their decision making, including vibration, chemical cues, and sound. Practical techniques for marking and following spiders in the field, designing experimental arenas in the laboratory, and incorporating video presentations of stimuli will be provided. We will also offer cautionary notes about how even seemingly subtle differences in design can profoundly affect the success of experiments.

  • 11 - Hyenas – Testing Cognition in the Umwelt of the Spotted Hyena

  • Edited by Nereida Bueno-Guerra, Federica Amici, Universität Leipzig
  • Book:
    Field and Laboratory Methods in Animal Cognition
    Published online:
    30 July 2018
    Print publication:
    09 August 2018, pp 244-265

  • Summary

    Spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta) are mammalian carnivores that occur throughout sub-Saharan Africa in a diverse array of habitats. Spotted hyenas primarily obtain food by hunting ungulates but also scavenge from carcasses using powerful jaws. They have extended juvenile periods and live in complex societies characterized by fission-fusion dynamics. Experimental assessments have been done using a variety of olfactory, visual, physical, and auditory stimuli. Studies suggest that spotted hyenas exhibit high levels of social intelligence, including recognition of third-party relationships. Innovation has been assessed in hyenas using a novel extractive foraging task, and numerosity using vocalization playback experiments. Major challenges during experimentation incude controlling olfactory, visual and auditory cues, building robust apparatuses and controlling motivation and neophobia. In the wild, cognitive assessment of individuals is influenced by complex group interactions as well as by specific testing conditions. However, testing in both captive and wild environments offers exciting opportunities to understand the evolution, mechanisms, and adaptive functions of cognition in this species.

  • 15 - Grey Parrots (Psittacus erithacus) – Cognitive and Communicative Abilities

  • Edited by Nereida Bueno-Guerra, Federica Amici, Universität Leipzig
  • Book:
    Field and Laboratory Methods in Animal Cognition
    Published online:
    30 July 2018
    Print publication:
    09 August 2018, pp 329-353

  • Summary

    Parrot brains differ from human, primate, mammalian and even other bird brains. Consequently, parrot and human senses may differ (e.g. most parrots have ultraviolet vison; higher flicker-fusion rates and smaller binocular overlap than do primates). Some parrot and human senses are similar (e.g. acute hearing sensitivity range overlap). Grey parrots can perform quite like humans - particularly young children (e.g. number concepts) - sometimes more so than genetically-nearer nonhuman primates. Such aspects affect laboratory experimental design and possibly field studies, although little is known about Greys’ lives in nature. I summarize knowledge about Grey parrot sensory capabilities and their possible effect on cognitive studies, and examine generalizations about behavioural training techniques - particularly how humans’ early evaluations of parrot capacities were prejudiced by not understanding how parrots learn vocalizations and concepts. I review laboratory studies on cognitive and communicative abilities. As to guidance for conducting field work, I discuss the small amount of existent information. This chapter, therefore, is a reference source, not an exhaustive treatise nor detailed guide.

  • 9 - Fish – How to Ask Them the Right Questions

  • Edited by Nereida Bueno-Guerra, Federica Amici, Universität Leipzig
  • Book:
    Field and Laboratory Methods in Animal Cognition
    Published online:
    30 July 2018
    Print publication:
    09 August 2018, pp 199-221

  • Summary

    Fish represent the largest radiation of vertebrates, with over 32 000 species. While fish possess many anatomical and perceptual adaptations to the aquatic environment, most experimental procedures used to study cognition in other species are readily adaptable to fish. Their small size, ease of handling and wide range of ecological niches have long made fish a model species for cognitive research. Here we will focus predominantly on four model species: guppies (Poecilia reticulata), three-spined sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus), goldfish (Carassius auratus) and zebrafish (Danio rerio). First, we will give an overview of some anatomical and perceptual traits that are relevant to cognitive research. We will then address some characteristics of their life cycle, ecology and social behaviour that should be considered when studying cognition, and include some tricks for adapting cognitive tasks to this group. Then, we will briefly review literature on each of these species, giving some historical information on their use as model species in cognition and behaviour. Finally, we will provide practical examples and tips to investigate spatial and social learning in fish, discussing how these tasks may be adapted to address slightly different questions.

  • 16 - Sharks – Elasmobranch Cognition

  • Edited by Nereida Bueno-Guerra, Federica Amici, Universität Leipzig
  • Book:
    Field and Laboratory Methods in Animal Cognition
    Published online:
    30 July 2018
    Print publication:
    09 August 2018, pp 354-380

  • Summary

    Sharks as a model animal cannot be considered a ‘typical fish.’ They are part of a highly diverse group of marine vertebrates known as the cartilaginous fishes (Chondrichthyes), which evolved independently of bony fishes (Osteichthyes) about 400 million years ago. Sharks range from planktivores to apex predators, are typically large-bodied, exhibit diverse reproductive modes, have long life spans, display ontogenetic shifts in diet and habitat preference and have widespread variation in brain size and complexity. Given the above characteristics, it is not surprising that studies exploring shark cognition are relatively few. However, in recent years substantial progress has been made, with a focus on small-bodied sharks such as bamboo, cat, lemon and horn sharks that can be maintained and monitored successfully in captivity. Importantly, this improvement in our understanding is also paralleled by advances in biotelemetry and bio-logging techniques. In this chapter, we explore the challenges that researchers face when working with sharks, but also highlight the advantages and advocate the importance of sharks as models for better understanding the link between ecology and cognition.

  • 12 - Lizards – Measuring Cognition: Practical Challenges and the Influence of Ecology and Social Behaviour

  • Edited by Nereida Bueno-Guerra, Federica Amici, Universität Leipzig
  • Book:
    Field and Laboratory Methods in Animal Cognition
    Published online:
    30 July 2018
    Print publication:
    09 August 2018, pp 266-285

  • Summary

    In the past few decades, there has been a growing appreciation for the cognitive ability of lizards. Recent work has demonstrated that lizards show behavioural flexibility, social learning and may use imitation. Importantly, much of lizard ecology and behaviour is temperature dependent and the thermal environment during embryonic development can have a profound effect on phenotype. Lizards are generally relatively easy to maintain in captivity but, across the phylogeny, have been shown to differ fundamentally in their ecology and behaviour. For example, many clades are hard-wired for foraging mode (e.g. ambush vs active foragers) and with this, are differences in the ability to detect prey chemicals. These fundamental differences can affect the choice of a suitable cognitive test. Likewise, sex, reproductive state and social dominance may also affect learning ability. In this chapter, we will describe relevant aspects of lizard biology and then briefly review the literature on lizard cognition. Finally, we will describe practical approaches to studying cognition in the lab and field including how the data should be collected, managed and analysed.

  • 4 - Carib Grackles – Field and Lab Work on a Tame, Opportunistic Island Icterid

  • Edited by Nereida Bueno-Guerra, Federica Amici, Universität Leipzig
  • Book:
    Field and Laboratory Methods in Animal Cognition
    Published online:
    30 July 2018
    Print publication:
    09 August 2018, pp 76-96

  • Summary

    The Carib grackle is a blackbird from the family Icteridae, one of the avian families showing the highest level of innovativeness in the wild. This grackle is particularly successful in the highly anthropogenically-modified environment of Barbados, exploiting a range of food sources made available by humans. The behaviour and cognition of this species has been investigated for more than 20 years, through direct experimentation in nature and behavioural tests conducted on birds kept captive for a few weeks. Particularly tame and exploratory in the field, and habituating very quickly to captivity, the grackle has proven to be a model species to characterize inter-individual variation in cognition. Here we describe the challenges associated with the measurement of cognition in wild birds, and detail the methodological solutions developed to deal with these challenges in the Carib grackle. From habituation protocols to measurements of temperament and novel cognitive tasks, we outline some of the constraints, difficulties and advantages surrounding the study of this species’ cognition in the field. Finally, we provide technical and methodological advice on field conditions, experimental set-ups and maintenance of birds in captivity for short periods.

  • 14 - Octopuses – Mind in the Waters

  • Edited by Nereida Bueno-Guerra, Federica Amici, Universität Leipzig
  • Book:
    Field and Laboratory Methods in Animal Cognition
    Published online:
    30 July 2018
    Print publication:
    09 August 2018, pp 308-328

  • Summary

    Why study the behaviour of octopuses?  They are known to be very intelligent, to have personalities, play and accomplish many learning tasks, as well as explore their environment. They may even have a simple form of consciousness. But they accomplish all this with a neural and behavioural system that is radically different from that of vertebrates such as mammals and birds and follows a general invertebrate Protostomian body plan. So if we want to study a different model of advanced learning, to know more about comparative cognition, octopuses are logical subjects. While field work is slowly increasing our knowledge of cephalopods, laboratory studies on these animals are crucial to expand our understanding and to uncover background information about them. Thanks to the new European laws granting Cephalopods a status like vertebrates in terms of legal protection, efforts to standardizes and improve keeping Cephalopods have recently increased. Researchers need to know how to keep an animal safe and healthy, as well as some ‘tried and true’ approaches for learning about it. This chapter will begin with three areas of background, and will discuss particular testing paradigms.

  • 3 - Bees – The Experimental Umwelt of Honeybees

  • Edited by Nereida Bueno-Guerra, Federica Amici, Universität Leipzig
  • Book:
    Field and Laboratory Methods in Animal Cognition
    Published online:
    30 July 2018
    Print publication:
    09 August 2018, pp 60-75

  • Summary

    Honeybees live both a social life inside of their colony and a life as individuals when foraging. Their cognitive faculties become apparent in their individual life as foragers for provision and information. Identifying them as individuals has crucially allowed studying learning and memory formation under natural conditions and in the laboratory, thus tracing the history of individuals’ experience. Although here I mainly focus on behavioural studies, bees also lend themselves to neurophysiological studies, because of their rather small brains, the excessibility of single neurons and networks, and their robustness. Training experiments reveal that bees perform rather complex tasks (e.g. learning rules, generalization and abstraction, delayed matching to sample, what, when and where tasks). Exploratory learning leads to navigation based on a memory structure, which can be best conceptualized as cognitive maps. Social communication through waggle dance is embedded in this rich spatial memory, allowing bees to choose between alternatives on the base of the expected outcome. While reviewing existing literature on bees’ umwelt and cognition, I will provide practical tips and suggestions on how to best test cognitive skills in these fascinating insects.

Page 83 of 807