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In this article, we shall discuss several of the alternative definitions of risk that have been proposed from time to time. We shall show that one definition — risk is the probability of loss — leads to a formulation of the investment decision problem as a chance constrained problem. Three different strategies are then proposed by which an investor can reduce risk. It is our belief that professional investors utilize all three strategies and that risk, in many such cases, is not a substantial constraint on investor behavior.
The vector of equilibrium aggregate market values (or per share prices) of a given set of risk assets trading in purely competitive markets of individually risk-averse investors has been derived in earlier work under certain simplifying assumptions, including the absence of taxes and transactions costs and a single (uniform) holding period for the assessment of uncertain outcomes (See [8], [9], [10], [15], and [12]). The other critical assumptions in these studies were (a) the existence of a riskless asset available for holding or borrowing at a fixed, exogenously determined interest rate, (b) an assumption that all investors act in terms of identical joint probability distributions over end-of-period outcomes, and (c) the acceptance of a mean-variance criterion for portfolio decisions.
Professor Chandler uses data compiled by two of his students, Harold C. Livesay and P. Glenn Porter, whose work is condensed in the charts and tables which accompany this article, to propose a historical explanation for the changing industrial structure of the modem American economy.
In the mid-1860's, Singer became the first American firm to produce and market extensively in Europe. Without using government aid, the company built an aggressive and effective organization which became a model for other overseas operations. Professor Davies traces Singer's foreign undertakings from their modest beginnings in 1854 to acknowledged dominance of the industry in 1889.