Records of how to select people date back 3,000–5,000 years and there are supposed incidences in the Bible. There remain, to this day, an interest and belief in astrology despite there being little evidence that place and time of birth relate to any major individual difference factors. There is also still an interest in graphology, which is the belief that the dramatic differences in writing between individuals is an importantly and stable marker of personality or motivation. Study after study show there is no validity in handwriting analysis. The situation with regard to phrenology is different. The Victorians believed that the shape of the head reflected the shape of the brain which was primarily responsible for individual differences. The fanciful connect between head shape and brain location and psychological characteristics has however been revived by neuroscience and fMRI scanning. Similarly, the idea that body shape and build was a strong marker of personality has been discredited, but the modern interest in BMI and WHR has shown that these are indeed markers of different kinds of behaviour.

Many assessors assume that it is always better to have physiological data to assess people because it is more accurate, subtle and less prone to errors like faking and impression management. The argument is ‘the body does not lie’. This chapter looks at four techniques that measure different aspects of behaviour: the EEG, the fMRI, the lie detector and voice analysis. There is some overlap in what these different techniques measure, but they all assume that physical data can give powerful clues into a person’s ability, personality and motivation. Whilst there has been a slowing down in research on the EEG and the polygraph because of weak and mixed results, there is a great deal of interest in the fMRI. Many claims have been made for what the fMRI measures though the cost of this research has meant it remains limited and, as yet, totally inappropriate for the assessment of people for jobs. There has also been a long-standing interest, mostly by law enforcement and insurance companies, in voice stress analysis to reveal the emotional state of speakers. The chapter is concerned with the validity of this sort of data and whether it could or should be used in job selection and general person assessment.

The whole process of assessment and job selection is becoming considerably more complicated. There are more choices of methods and great differences in costs. Perhaps one of the hottest topics addressed in this chapter is that of bias, discrimination and fairness. The way an organisation goes about assessment is a matter of PR as candidates and competitors see it as a statement about a company’s philosophy and values. The chapter discusses, as an example, the data which suggest that physically attractive people have undue advantages in the selection process. Assessors and selectors have to become mindful of the perception and reaction of those being assessed, and particularly changes in the law which varies from country to country. The business of selection has to be much more than choosing test methods on fundamental psychometric criteria or economic constraints. Ways of dealing with and reducing bias are considered.

This chapter covers five very different ways of assessing people by measuring their behaviour and choices. By far the most sensitive issue is the measurement of intelligence. Whilst the academic literature is very clear: intelligence can be easily and accurately measured and is highly predictive of many aspects of daily life (including work productivity), in the ‘practical world’ of Human Resources people are very cautious about using these tests because of established group differences. The chapter also looks at unobtrusive measures sometimes called snooping, which is concerned with how certain features of our life (office/bedroom layout) give a surprising insight into an individual’s personality and values. The chapter also considers situational judgement tests, which describe or show a typical workplace situation and candidates are required to select the best response. Fourth, the chapter looks at the definition and measurement of creativity, which remains something of a backwater in psychometric research, though selectors rate it very highly. Finally, the chapter looks at gamification, which involves the assessment of people by how they play various electronic games.

This chapter covers three areas of research of interest to those in assessment: the accuracy and usefulness of others’/observers’ reports, namely references and testimonials; appraisals and reports by people at work who know the individual (boss, colleagues, reports, customers); and the electronic surveillance at work and home. Each method relies on observer reports which are often considered to be superior to self-reports, though they are highly reliant on both the observer’s actual ‘data’ on the individual, as well as the extent to which they are honest. One of the oldest, most established but least validated of methods is the use of personal references/testimonials by supposedly a person who knows a candidate well and is prepared to be honest. The second which comes from the USA more than 70 years ago remains very popular as much for development and training as assessment: similar ratings from different people at work on the same individual on various different aspects. The third area is perhaps the most controversial: the monitoring of individual through a variety (mostly electronic) means on all sorts of their behaviour at as well as to and from work. The newest method, namely wearables, is also discussed.

One of the biggest, newest and most exciting assessment and research opportunity to occur since the millennium has been the exploitation of Big Data, which is the ‘electronic footprint’ that we all leave when using credit and other cards as well as the web, through a variety of social networks. Assessment, selection and recruitment experts have not been slow in seeking Big Data as a way of collecting a wide variety of pieces of information about targeted individuals. There have also been some high-profile scandals using Big data. This chapter looks at the five Vs of Big data: Volume (how much data on individuals is potentially available), Variety (the wide range of data on behaviours available), Velocity (the sheer speed of data accumulation and possibilities of analysis), Veracity (the all-important point of the accuracy and truthfulness of the data) and Value (whether it is uniquely valuable or not). Studies on Facebook profiles are discussed in detail. It is perhaps the most exciting prospect for person assessment, but the promises, perils and problems are also discussed. Finally, half a dozen experts report on how they see Big Data as offering opportunities for person assessment.

This long chapter covers three very well-known ways of selection. The first is the interview, which is used almost universally as well as expected by candidates. The chapter looks at different types of interviews, especially the difference between structured and unstructured interviews. It also considers problems of impression management as well as the role of the personality of interviewers. Developments in automated/digital interviews is reviewed. The second section considers the very big topic of personality tests and focuses on bright- and dark-side tests as well as attempts to measure ‘high-flyers’. It also looks at the measurement of integrity, motivation and strengths. Whilst there have been many developments in how tests are delivered (i.e. through mobile phones), there has been much less progress in theory development. One aim is to help the reader make better decisions on the choice of the thousands of tests available. Thirdly, the literature on projective techniques is reviewed, including the famous Thematic Apperception test, and sentence completion. Whilst the appeal of these tests is great, the evidence for their validity is weak.

This chapter looks at the future of people assessment. Like many other areas of business there have been many, and rapid, technology-led changes. There are questions about who are or should be assessed; when and how they are assessed; the cost and legal changes in assessment; and how data is stored. The quiet world of academic-led assessment and testing has been ‘invaded’ by people in business eager to sell psychological testing and assessment to a much larger market. Inevitably there are enthusiasts and sceptics: the former claiming how AI computer and neuro-science technology will revolutionise the ease, cost and accuracy of assessment, while the sceptics argue there is still very little evidence for these claims. It certainly is a ‘good time to be alive’ for those interested in people assessment.