Rock and folk histories have configured a particular version of politics and resistance. Yet as rock and folk are transformed through different modes of music, how is politics also configured? Playing with authenticity, the hyperreal offers a new way of thinking about political pop.

This chapter delves into the evolution of the modern circus, shedding light on its intricate interplay between national origins and international influences. While the genesis of the modern circus can be traced back to specific national contexts, it undeniably tapped into global connections and exotic imagery to craft narratives of national identity. While prior scholarship has extensively explored the emergence of the modern circus in the eighteenth century and its subsequent flourishing during the Georgian and Victorian eras, this chapter examines its quest for identity as it entered the twentieth century. Originally amalgamating rougher traditions associated with fairs and theatres, the modern circus found itself at a crossroads amidst the burgeoning influence of American mass culture. This juncture marked a pivotal moment for the circus, prompting cultural elites in Britain and Germany to reevaluate its direction. Circus directors, performers and fan associations embarked on a mission to redefine the essence of the modern circus. The aftermath of the First World War served as a catalyst for this reformation, as it engendered a renewed emphasis on professionalism and national heritage, while circuses were also competing for audience attention. Against a backdrop of economic, social and political upheaval, the modern circus in Britain and Germany underwent a profound metamorphosis, reinventing itself to align with shifting public sentiments and aspirations. The dynamics of domestic and international circus travel further shaped the evolution of the modern circus during this transformative period, highlighting its adaptability and resilience in the face of changing societal landscapes.

Chapter four elucidates contrasting approaches to the portrayal of difference in the British and German circuses during the interwar period. While the British circus showcased imperial subjects, the German circus tapped into anti-imperial themes to captivate audiences. Central to this dynamic was the fascination with American Indians, revered as symbols of exoticism and noble savagery within the German circus scene. The chapter delves into the profound impact of Native American culture on the German circus, exploring how it fuelled public enthusiasm and shaped circus performances. In interwar Germany, where imperial aspirations were connected to debates over the loss of its colonial possessions, Wild West shows featuring Native Americans emerged as a powerful anti-imperial fantasy. At the forefront of this phenomenon was the Sarrasani Circus, notably led by director Hans Stosch-Sarrasani senior, who himself embraced a cowboy persona. Through authentic encounters with Lakota performers from the Pine Ridge Reservation, framed as kindred spirits of the German people, the circus offered audiences a glimpse into a romanticised frontier world. By situating this spectacle within a transnational framework of imperial othering, the chapter reveals how both imperial and anti-imperial motifs operated within the same cultural context. Furthermore, it underscores the disparity between the idealised portrayal of American Indians in the circus and the harsh realities faced by the Lakota Indians residing on American reservations.

European animal trainers portrayed themselves as ‘Orientals’ while demonstrating their prowess with wild animals. Positioned at the crossroads of gender and imperial studies, this chapter unveils the intricate dynamics of these trainers’ agency in orchestrating performances with wild animals. Central to the argument is the assertion that these animal trainers strategically employed ‘Oriental’ motifs to anchor national spectacles within the framework of the modern circus. Against the backdrop of the interwar period, characterised by the reliance of circuses on international and, to some extent, global networks, the prominence of ‘Oriental’ themes in the display of wild animals soared. However, far from being mere exotic superfluities, these representations served a dual purpose: they not only catered to international tastes but also bolstered national identities, particularly in Germany and Britain. By presenting themselves as compassionate guardians of wildlife while simultaneously revealing their ferocity within the ring, these performances provided audiences with a reflection of their own national character. In essence, this chapter unveils the complex interplay between exoticism, national identity and the public’s perception of wildlife, shedding light on the nuanced ways in which the modern circus navigated the currents of global culture and imperial ideologies.

The modern circus emerged as a captivating spectacle, showcasing acts from across the globe – a vibrant amalgamation of diverse individuals, animals and daring feats. Worlds of the ring contends that these displays of diversity served as affirmations of national symbols, practices and narratives. This introductory chapter unveils a previously overlooked cultural history of the circus in Britain and Germany during the interwar period, contributing a fresh perspective to the study of popular culture. It explores the early manifestations of cultural globalisation, highlighting the circus as a microcosm of interwar popular entertainment. Circuses functioned as catalysts for social discourse and the construction of national identity. Performers, directors and audiences engaged in lively negotiations surrounding contemporary visions of nationality and its others. The chapter delves into the intricate relationship between the construction of the nation and the foreign others presented within the German and British circus, offering a dynamic stage for interwar debates.

Chapter three explores the roots of the modern circus’s dual tendencies towards nationalisation and globalisation, tracing them back to earlier imperial displays. It focuses on the circus’s integration of nineteenth-century ethnographic show practices and presentations of racial and bodily differences. As interwar circuses thrived on these older representations of difference, the chapter highlights the case of the Padaung women, or ‘giraffe-neck women’, from Upper Burma, exhibited at British circuses as a means of imperial and national reaffirmation. Transferring nineteenth-century ethnographic traditions to twentieth-century entertainment, the circus offered a simplified, nationally recognisable portrayal of Southeast Asia, particularly Burma, as imperial others. By analysing visual and textual sources, the chapter illustrates how the circus provided audiences with mirrors reflecting their national concerns around race, empire and gender. Examining photographs of the Padaung women during their circus stint in England reveals a recurring contrast between the English centre and the Burmese periphery of the empire. Additionally, the chapter addresses the construction of authenticity through the circus’s recruitment and presentation of the group, emphasising the unequal power dynamics between producers and performers. Furthermore, the chapter raises questions about the silencing and absence of non-European voices in circus archives, echoing discussions from nineteenth-century ethnographic exhibitions and freak shows. It initiates a dialogue on twentieth-century circus entertainment’s engagement with nineteenth-century othering practices, while also highlighting the complex interplay of race, hierarchy, gender and agency within circus dynamics.

The fifth and final chapter shows how the modern circus navigated the increased influence of state control while also maintaining its international character at the beginning of the Second World War. As a form of wartime entertainment, the circus occupied a tenuous position between being subject to the expectations of authorities and those of audiences, with pleasure and propaganda functioning as interrelated categories. The chapter investigates how the circus was drawn in and resisted these national pulls in Britain and Germany, and the growing sentiments against each other. Through a close reading of 1939 and 1940 circus programmes, the chapter assesses the interplay of controlling and persuading audiences through plays of national propaganda and exotic escapism, which allowed a surprising continuity of international entertainment. On the inside, however, the cracks among the international community of show people were highly visible. Through newspaper clippings, the chapter assesses the underlying anti-German, anti-British and anti-international sentiments within the circus industry in both countries. Whilst circus directors and performers navigated these internal debates and the strains of the war overall, audiences voiced their expectations and disappointments over wartime circus entertainment, which are investigated through newspaper reviews and diaries of circus show attendees.

The concluding chapter summarises the narrative of the book, its significance being the illumination of the complex interplay between the circus, imperialism and national identity, shedding light on a previously overlooked aspect of cultural history. By unpacking the symbolism and narratives woven into the fabric of the circus, it invites readers to reconsider the role of entertainment in shaping societal attitudes and perceptions during a pivotal period in history. By delving into the German and British national narratives that underpinned the circus, it has unearthed the intricate and entangled layers of meaning embedded within its performances and spectacles. Moreover, it briefly examines the post-war trajectory of the circus in both Germany and Britain, offering insights into how this captivating form of entertainment evolved in the aftermath of global conflict. Looking ahead, this conclusion outlines promising avenues for future research at the juncture of popular culture studies and cultural history, suggesting a rich terrain for further exploration into the modern circus.