Introduction

The objective of this work is to make known the astronomical activities in the region of Campinas, the process of developing municipal cooperation and the general conclusions that reflect this process.

This research has been done by means of interviews with people related to the creation of astronomical centers in the region of the city of Campinas that is located in the state of São Paulo in Brasil (Fig. 1 and 2).

The conditions studied are related with this region but many ideas could be used in developing countries or others.

Nowadays there are works in the areas of research, teaching and popularization in many institutions besides the individual efforts of teachers and amateur astronomers in general. At two local universities (Unicamp and Puccamp) the discipline of astronomy at the graduate level is still optional. There are no groups or departments of astronomy but various students have obtained the MSc degree in areas such as black holes, active galactic nuclei, cosmology and teaching of astronomy. There is also a small planetarium, a naked eye observatory, some astronomy clubs as well as various amateur astronomers who contribute with systematic observations of the sky in many fields such as Sun, planets, occultations, comets, astrophotography, CCD astronomy and even with the use of spectroheliograph, coronograph and a Schmidt camera. Some teachers conduct astronomical activities in many schools of the region within disciplines like sciences or physics as well as lectures, exhibits and observations of the sky. There are six municipal observatories (Campinas, Americana, Itapira, Piracicaba, Diadema and Amparo), with continuing activities of observational programs, public observation, exhibits, and other activities directed to students.

Introduction

A European Initiative

Astronomy knows no geographical borders – the sky is the same over all countries. However, while professional astronomers have long established bi- and multilateral collaborations, many of which take place under the auspices of the IAU, few similar schemes exist within astronomy education.

Now, following the establishment in 1995 of the European Association for Astronomy Education (EAAE), this situation is about to change on that continent. This new association offers an efficient platform for astronomy educators at various levels – in particular at the approx. 7000 secondary schools in this geographical area – to interact in all related matters, e.g. curricula, all kinds of teaching materials, student exchanges and other events. Together with the European Commission and some of the professional institutes, EAAE is now planning a major, international event in November 1996.

Geographical disparity

Astronomy is taught at secondary school level in most European countries, but there are enormous differences from area to area. In some places astronomy plays an important role within the physics curriculum, in other places CCD-equipped telescopes of medium size are available for observational studies, and in some places astronomy is barely visible or the connected matters are spread over many different subjects. With some notable exceptions, it cannot be said that the teaching of astronomy in Europe is satisfactory, and it would appear that the great potential inherent in this science with so many connections and of such an outspoken interdisciplinary nature is very poorly exploited.

The data, scientific results, and expertise from NASA's Hubble Space Telescope (HST) and other NASA Missions are being integrated into programs that support innovative and experimental methods to improve content in science and math education. Partnerships with science museums, teachers, other educators, community colleges, universities and other key organizations integrate unique and cutting edge science data and the associated satellite technology into resources which have the potential to enhance science, math and technical learning. The inspiring nature of astronomical data and the technology associated with the HST and other missions can be used by teachers to engage students in many inventive activities. The resources created through collaborative teaming will be discussed, as well as the process for creating partnerships to benefit the education community. Many NASA supported programs encourage electronic access and distribution of multi-media interactive activities and curriculum support materials distributed across the Internet. Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI), in particular, is endeavoring to make the science results announced through the news media and through public information channels particularly relevant to a broad audience, including through resources for pre-college classrooms and informal science centers.

Introduction

Background: NASA Involvement

The science divisions within NASA have a specific charter to provide unique and often new technology instrumentation in orbit for the purpose of conducting top rank science research in the Earth, Space, Planetary and Astrophysical Sciences. The expense of commissioning useful orbiting observatories necessitates that excellent research be efficiently accomplished with the facilities.

Introduction

Michigan State University (MSU) serves a large and diverse student population, ∼ 1000 of whom take the astronomy course for non- science majors each year. Significant resources are also invested in the related astronomy lab, enrolling about half the lecture students. Although this lab is optional, the students are required to complete one lab course for their degree. In the fall of 1995, we undertook an extensive assessment of student learning in these astronomy courses.

The Student Population

Unlilke most astronomy research, information about the entire population under study (403 students) was available. This included name, major, grade earned, and concurrent enrollment in lab and lecture. Fig. l(a) shows that the shapes of the grade distributions differ for the day and evening classes, and that neither is Gaussian. Therefore the day and evening classes will be analysed separately, and statistics such as mean and standard deviation are good descriptors for only the day-class students receiving a 1.0 lecture grade or above. The lab grades were also plotted for the day and evening classes separately, and no difference in the shapes of the distributions were apparent (Fig. l(b)). This indicates that the different grade distributions of the day and evening lectures are lecture-dependent, rather than rooted in the nature of the students taking day versus evening classes. The lecture and lab grades were also plotted for males versus females (gender information was not available for eleven students), and no gender bias was evident.

Introduction

The Astronomy Village multimedia program is designed to emphasize the process of science as much as its content (Pompea and Blurton, 1995; Pompea, 1996). It was designed for 14 year-old students, but has been used at slightly younger age levels and for older students, including university students. The investigations are flexible enough to be used at this wide variety of levels.

In this CD-ROM-based multimedia program, student teams can pursue one often research investigations. In each investigation they are guided by a mentor, receive e-mail, hear a lecture in the Village auditorium, and make observations using ground or spacebased telescopes in a virtual observatory. The students also process data using the NIH Image image processing program. They keep a detailed logbook of their research activities and can run simulations on stellar evolution as well as manipulate 3-D astronomy visualization tools. At the end, they present their research results to their classmates and answer questions about their results at a press conference. The Astronomy Village builds upon previous work in the use of image processing for education (Pompea, 1994a), teaching techniques in astronomy (Pompea, 1994b) current research in astronomy (Pompea, 1995), and developments in optics education (Pompea and Nofziger, 1995; Pompea and Stepp, 1995; Pompea, 1996).

The Astronomy Village Process Model

The process model for the Astronomy Village program is that students become members of one of ten potential research teams that are pursuing front-line observational astronomy research.

Introduction

The universe of marine navigators and surveyors is basically a geocentric one. All calculations necessary for reducing celestial observations to obtain directional or positional information can be carried out within the pre- Copernican two sphere hypothesis. Some mature students on the degree courses have practical experience of navigation at sea but are not used to more abstract ways of thinking. However, most courses in navigation require students to understand the many corrections that have to be applied in astro-navigation. The planetarium can be used to illustrate the basic concepts of the two sphere hypothesis, although other methods are needed to understand the nautical almanac and the principles used in its calculation.

Coordinate Systems and the Planetarium

Obviously a planetarium is very useful to teach star identification, which all practical navigators should be able to do. Projected vertical circles, meridians, prime verticals, celestial equator and ecliptic, hour circles and projected protractors at zenith and pole are very helpful in teaching co-ordinate systems. These circles can also be used as an empirical introduction to the basic concepts of spherical trigonometry. Planetariurns can also be used to demonstrate the effect of precession on right ascension and declination. However, since the planetarium emphasises the geocentric view point it cannot readily be used to explain the physics of precession.

Gyroscopes and Orreries

Many astronomy textbooks take the trouble to explain the dynamics of precession, using the spinning top analogy, but few explain the gyroscopic properties of a spinning body. Even physics students find rotary motion difficult at first, and most good physics textbooks go to great pains to explain and illustrate the concepts.

Although it comes at the end of the programme, this contribution is in no sense a ‘summary’ of the meeting. It addresses some issues that were covered by earlier speakers, but is written from the individual perspective as a research astronomer working in the UK.

Astronomy and Young People

A few comments first on education in schools – this is a special worry here in the UK, where our international rankings are disappointing. An appreciation of science is vital not just for tomorrow's scientist and engineers, but for everyone who will live and work in a world even more underpinned by technology – and even more vulnerable to its failures and misapplications – than the present one. Even more important, the option of higher education in science and technology should not be foreclosed to them. There is widespread concern particularly about the 16-18 age group. Many of us put strong emphasis on broadening the curriculum for this group, which currently enforces unduly early specialisation here in England. Young people opting for humanities should not drop all science when they are 16. (I have carefully said ‘England’ rather than ‘the UK’ because the curriculum is already broader in Scotland. Scottish education has its admirers here, but few in Scotland advocate a switch to the English system!)

It is crucial that enough of the brightest young people go on to acquire some professional expertise in science and technology. They will not do so unless, when making the key decisions at age 16 or 18, they perceive a range of appealing opportunities. They will be discouraged if the courses do not inspire them.

Introduction

Carter Observatory is the National Observatory of New Zealand and was opened in 1941. For more than ten years the Observatory has maintained an active education program for visiting school groups (see Andrews, 1991), and education now forms one of its four functions. The others relate to astronomical research; public astronomy; and the preservation of New Zealands astronomical heritage (see Orchiston and Dodd, 1995).

Since the acquisition of a small Zeiss planetarium and associated visitor centre in 1992, the public astronomy and education programs at the Carter Observatory have witnessed a major expansion (see Orchiston, 1995; Orchiston and Dodd, 1996). A significant contributing factor was the introduction by the government of a new science curriculum into New Zealand schools in 1995 (Science in the New Zealand Curriculum, 1995). “Making Sense of Planet Earth and Beyond”comprises one quarter of this curriculum, and the “Beyond”component is astronomy. As a result of this exciting innovation, within just a few years, astronomy will be taught at almost every school in New Zealand – from entry primary school through to final year secondary – at eight distinct levels. This, in turn, will eventually lead to the emergence of one of the most astronomically-aware nations on Earth.

In 1995 the Ministry of Education also introduced competitive funding for museums, science centres, observatories and other institutions wishing to offer “Learning Experiences Outside the Classroom”, and the Carter Observatory was successful in negotiating a three-year contract. As a result, a second full-time Education Officer was appointed, and the Observatory's schools program was totally revised in order to cater to the evolving needs of students, teachers and trainee teachers under the new astronomy curriculum.

Introduction

Carter Observatory is the gazetted National Observatory of New Zealand, and opened in 1941 December. From the start, the main function of the Observatory was to provide for the astronomical needs of the citizens of, and visitors to, the Wellington region, and today this remains one of its four recognised functions (Orchiston and Dodd, 1995). The other three are to conduct astronomical research of international significance; provide a national astronomy education service for school students, teachers, and trainee teachers; and assist in the preservation of New Zealand's astronomical heritage.

Since 1992 the Carter Observatory has undergone major restructuring as a result of acquiring an aging Zeiss planetarium and an accompanying visitor centre (Van Dijk, 1992), and in response to major changes in Government funding policy. As a result, there has been a wholesale revamp of the education and public astronomy functions (see Orchiston, 1995b; Orchiston and Dodd, 1996). This paper focuses on the latter area, with emphasis on development of the Visitor Centre and the publications program.

The Visitor Center

The focal point of the Observatory's in-house public astronomy programs is the Visitor Centre, comprising a foyer area with “Space Shop”, the planetarium chamber, an audiovisual theatre (that also doubles as a meeting room), a small video room which also houses a public-access PC (featuring the “Orbits”program), and the “Dome Room”where the Observatory's historically-significant 23cm Cook photovisual refractor (see Andrews and Budding, 1992; Orchiston et al., 1995) holds pride of place. There are also the mandatory wheelchair-access toilets, and adjacent to the theatre is a small kitchen.

Project LINK (A Live and Interactive Network of Knowledge), is a collaboration of Eureka Scientific, Inc., the San Francisco exploratorium Science Museum, and NASA/Ames Research Center. Project LINK has demonstrated video-conferencing capabilities from the Kuiper Airborne Observatory (KAO) to the San Francisco Exploratorium in the context of science education outreach to K-12 teachers and students. The project was intended to pilot-test strategies for facilitating the live interface between scientists and K-12 teachers aboard the KAO with their peers and students through the resources and technical expertise available at science museums and private industry. The interface was based on Internet/macintosh video conferencing capabilities which allowed teachers and students at the Exploratorium to collaborate in a live and interactive manner with teachers and scientists aboard the KAO. The teachers teams chosen for the on-board experiments represented rural and urban school districts in California. The teachers interfaced with colleagues as part of the NASA-Funded Project FOSTER (Flight Opportunities for Science Teacher Enrichment).

Teachers from Project LINK participated on two flights aboard the KAO during the Fall of 1995. Lesson plans, classroom activities, project descriptions and lessons learned are currently being disseminated through the World Wide Web. Further details of this Project LINK can be found at: http://www.exploratorium.edu/leaming_studio/link.

What kind of astronomy can be taught to children between the ages of 6 and 11?

There are those who argue that children have little familiarity with the sky and that the study of astronomy should be put off until they're older. We believe, on the other hand, that children have an intimate daily rapport with the sky, the sun and moon especially, based on genuine affection for these celestial bodies which is often expressed in their fantasies, reminiscent of ancient mythology and present-day primitive cultures. Their initial conceptions of celestial objects and phenomena bring to mind ancient philosophical conceptions and the kind of erroneous thinking induced by present-day culture and mass media, and make us aware of how difficult it is to develop personal perceptions and of the powerful emotions that prevent or inhibit us from building new ones. The kind of astronomy we present to young children, with which we have been experimenting for years, is not the kind usually taught in schools and cannot be broken down into various different topics. We have children observe nature, do real life drawings of it, concentrate on it and listen to mythological stories so as to sensitize them to the rhythm of sounds, song, motion, numerical calculation and geometric representation.

This kind of astronomy only deals with what can be seen and recorded with the naked eye: the Earth, Sun, Moon, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn, the constellations and the sky, a theater of celestial bodies in motion.

ASTRONOMY FOR CHILDREN

1. - IS NOT A SUBJECT MATTER AS SUCH

2. - IS NOT BROKEN DOWN INTO TOPICS

3. - ONLY CONSIDERS CELESTIAL BODIES VISIBLE IN THE SKY TO THE NAKED EYE

Introduction

We describe a partnership approach in place at UC Berkeley's Center for Extreme Ultraviolet Astrophysics (CEA) that: (a) facilitates the adaptation of astrophysics data and information from NASA and other sources for use in the K–12 classroom, (b) facilitates scientists’ participation in astronomy education, and (c) engages a sustained collaboration typically including personnel from research institutions, centers of informal science teaching such as museums and planetaria, university-based schools of education, and K–12 schools. We are investigating several ways of engaging scientists in partnerships for the purpose of making their research results accessible in appropriate ways to the K-12 community via Internet and World Wide Web technologies. Our investigation addresses the hypothesis that the transition of scientific data and research results from the workplace to the classroom can be facilitated by the joint creation of curriculum materials by teams of cognitive experts, subject-matter experts, and teachers. In particular, we are investigating how space science, astronomy, and Earth science research results can be adapted through a partnership approach into more effective representations for use in the classroom. Our strategy for evaluating our partnership approach engaged the participation of personnel from scientific research institutions, centers of informal science learning, and schools. We describe several projects led by UC Berkeley's Center for EUV Astrophysics: “Science On-Line,” “Science Information Infrastructure,” and “Satellite Operations Class for Teachers.” Our projects have two primary and complementary components, namely, implementation in school districts serving students with wide-ranging socio-economic backgrounds and a science education research component based on in-depth project evaluation.

The MicroObservatory Net

Beginning in 1990, a group of scientists, engineers and educators based at the Harvard- Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics (CfA) developed a prototype of a small, inexpensive and fully integrated automated astronomical telescope and image processing system. The MicroObservatory combines the imaging power of a cooled CCD, with a self contained and weatherized reflecting optical telescope and mount. A microcomputer points the telescope and processes the captured images. Software for computer control, pointing, focusing, filter selection as well as pattern recognition have also been developed. The telescope was designed to be used by teachers for classroom instruction, as well as by students for original scientific research projects. Probably in no other area of frontier science is it possible for a broad spectrum of students (not just the gifted) to have access to state-of-the-art technologies that allow for original research projects. The MicroObservatory has also been designed to be used as a valuable new capture and display device for real-time astronomical imaging in planetariums and science museums. The project team has now built five second generation instruments. The new instruments will be tried with high school and university students and teachers, as well as with museum groups over the next two years.

Though originally designed for use in individual schools, we are now planning to make the MicroObservatories available to students, teachers and other individual users over the Internet. We plan to allow the telescopes to be controlled in real time or in batch mode, from a Macintosh or PC compatible computer. In the real-time mode, we hope to give individuals access to all of the telescope control functions without the need for an “onsite” operator.

Introduction

Like many research institutions, the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysicsf (CfA), has been actively engaged in education and public outreach activities for many years. The Harvard University Department of Astronomy, the formal higher education arm of the CfA, offers an undergraduate concentration and a doctoral program. In our Science Education Department, educational researchers manage ten programs that address the needs of teachers and students (K–12 and college), through advanced technology, teacher enhancement programs, and the development of curriculum materials. The Editorial and Public Affairs Department offers several public lecture series, recorded sky information, children's nights, and runs the Whipple Observatory Visitors Center in Amado, AZ. In this environment of successful programs, the High Energy Astrophysics (HEA) division, one of seven research divisions at the CfA, has initiated, or partnered with other institutions, development of several new education and outreach programs. Some of these programs involve partnerships with the education community, but all of them have been initiated by and involve scientists.

Astronomical research in the HEA division is mainly focused on x-ray astronomy and the development of advanced x-ray instrumentation. Historically, involvement in education and outreach programs, including presenting public talks, school talks, the development of slides sets, and the publication of popular articles, has been informal. With management support, however, this long-lived tradition of informal education and outreach recently has coalesced into several formal programs that target three specific groups: college students, K–12 students and teachers, and the general public.

Overview

Project ASTRO is designed to improve astronomy education and science literacy in grades 4–9 by creating effective working partnerships between teachers/youth leaders and astronomers (both professional and amateur). Key elements of the program include:

• training the teachers/youth leaders and astronomers together in inquiry-based “handson, minds-on” learning activities

• encouraging an active working partnership between the astronomer and the teacher/youth leader

• encouraging multiple visits by the astronomer to the classroom or youth group meetings.

The ASP conducted a Project ASTRO pilot in California from 1992–1995, funded primarily by the National Science Foundation. The success of the pilot led to a second grant from NSF (1996–1998) to expand Project ASTRO to several other cities in the United States.

In the 3-year pilot project a total of 104 astronomers and 150 teachers formed 96 teams. More than 85% of the astronomers visited their adopted classrooms four or more times, with 46% making 5–10 visits during the school year. Approximately 10,000 students were involved. The Project ASTRO staff developed an extensive set of astronomy activities and tested resources, now available from the ASP as The Universe at Your Fingertips: An Astronomy Activity and Resource Notebook. The staff also published the Project ASTRO How-To Manual for Teachers and Astronomers.

In the first years, astronomers and teachers received stipends for attending training workshops. All participants either volunteered their time or were given release time by their employers for all time involved in planning and implementing their partnership visits and activities.

The independent evaluator rated the project “extremely successful”, noting that 91% of the teachers felt they were teaching more astronomy as a result of the project.

It is now well established that children construct their own explanations for the easily observed astronomical events before they receive any formal education in astronomy (see Mali & Howe, 1985; Nussbaum & Novak, 1976; Vosnaidou, 1991. It is also generally accepted that childrens notions, or ‘alternative frameworks’ are tenacious and frequently pass into adulthood (Gunstone et al, 1981). Baxter's (1989) survey revealed a hierarchy of alternative frameworks about astronomy that became less naive as age increases, but also revealed that many pupils leaving school at the age of 16 years did not explain the easily observed astronomical events within a post-Copernican framework.

Until the introduction of a National Curriculum in 1989, astronomy rarely featured in English schools’ science curricula (see Lintern-Ball, 1972; Baxter, 1991). Therefore, it is not surprising to discover that many children and adults (Durant, Evans and Thomas, 1989) have concepts about astronomy that bear a closer resemblance to those of the Dark Ages than the 20th-century space age.

For over six years now astronomy has been an established part of English children's school science experience. The survey reported in this paper was carried out to discover if children's alternative frameworks have been affected by the more widespread teaching of astronomy.

Methods of Investigation

This study investigated children's ideas about the same four astronomical domains researched in the 1988 survey (see Baxter, 1989):

• Planet Earth in space.

• Day and night.

• Phases of the Moon.

• The seasons.

The study employed the same astronomy conceptual survey instrument developed for the 1988 survey (see Baxter, 1989, for full details of the survey method).

Introduction

The Open University is the UK's foremost distance teaching university. For over twenty five years we have been presenting courses to students spanning a wide range of degree level and vocational subjects. Since we have no pre-requisites for entry, a major component of our course profile is a selection of foundation courses comprising one each in the Arts, Social Science, Mathematics, Technology and Science faculties. The Science Faculty's foundation course is currently undergoing a substantial revision. The new course, entitled “S103: Discovering Science”, will be presented to students for the first time in 1998.

The University has always aimed to make use of appropriate technologies for delivering its teaching material. For the first time, this new version of the Science Foundation Course will make extensive use of fully integrated CD-ROM based activities. One of these is a “Virtual Telescope” package designed to give students an appreciation of what is required to measure the expansion of the Universe.

S103: Discovering Science

The four science disciplines of biology, chemistry, Earth sciences and physics each contribute in equal measure to the course. Whilst parts of the course are deliberately multi-disciplinary, in order to give students a feel for science as a whole, other parts of the course reflect the very different natures of the four component disciplines. The course will be studied over a thirty-two week period and is accredited at 60 CATS points at level one. (CATS stands for Credit Accumulation Transfer Scheme and is the national scheme within the UK for classifying higher education courses.) A degree is awarded for an accumulation of 360 CATS points, split between levels one, two and three.