Introduction

The impact of public education is without question in the ‘public good’ domain and hence there is really no need to justify the demand for it. However, some professionals and scientists remain unconvinced about the necessity for it. This paper will lay out the benefits it holds for the scientists, categorise the target groups and identify the methods of approach for each target group and finally outline some strategies that can be adopted to achieve the educational aims.

Benefits of public education for the professionals

Contrary to belief, the professionals have more to gain from public education than the public. There are several reasons for this.

The first of these is that public education calls attention to the scientist's work. The publicity generated through this will indirectly attract the attention of the relevant agencies or bodies that disburse grants, approve programmes or determine manpower requirements. In the light of budget cutbacks, downsizing demands and rationalisation exercises that are getting commonplace, the scientists will do well to create a public alertness to stave off these calamities. Public interest usually signifies a demand for the science or the field or the department and, therefore, the authorities might think twice before taking any negative action.

Secondly, it is obvious that through public education a scientist will be able to gain fame. This is not entirely without advantage – one day at a highway toll booth, the operator recognised me and waved me off.

Astronomy is an important science in understanding a human environment. However, it is thought by most politicians, economists, and members of the public that astronomy is a pure science having no contribution to daily human activities except a few matters relating to time. The Japanese government is studying a reorganisation of our school system to have 5 school days per week, instead of 6 days per week, and this July its committee made a recommendation to reduce school hours for science and set up new courses for practical computers and environmental science. I currently made a proposal. It is very difficult for most of the school pupils, who will have non-scientific jobs, to understand science courses currently taught in school, because each science is taught independently from the other sciences. Therefore, their knowledge of sciences obtained during their school period does not greatly help their understanding of global environmental problems. We should present several stories to connect all the related sciences in order to give those pupils ideas in the understanding of global environmental problems. I believe that astronomy is able to play an important role in this context.

Expansion of scientific items to be taught.

Items which should be taught at school increase depending on time. Although items in language courses, mathematics courses, art courses and gymnastic courses increase little, those of social science courses increase gradually, but those in science courses do so drastically in recent decades. Therefore, it becomes much more difficult to teach all the necessary pupils. Pupils at the lower level of an elementary school have an interest in science, especially in astronomy.

I would like to dedicate this paper to the memory of professor Edith A. Miiller, deceased at the age of 77 a year ago, on July 24, 1995, until her retirement working at Geneva Observatory. She had been at the very beginnings of our IAU Commission 46 in the late sixties, she had been its President in 1970 when we all met during the General Assembly in Brighton, she always took great interest in further educational developments. I am personally grateful to her for much helpful advice during Commission 46 meetings at the General Assembly of 1985 in New Delhi. Wonderful teacher and organizer, she was also an extremely kind lady.

While I am not aware of any connection of Edith Mueller with a special planetarium, yet I have chosen this short biographical note to introduce my first problem, not so very obvious when mentioning generally planetarium activities. Nearly every planetarium bears the name of a patron, who either made the existence of that institution possible through financing, or was well known in the town or country for his/her interests in astronomy, etc. Let me mention two examples: Luiz Erro Planetarium in Mexico City, and Jawaharlal Nehru Planetarium in New Delhi. While Erro had been very interested in astronomy – he once studied at Harvard and helped introduce modern astrophysics to his country – Nehru had been a national person: the Planetarium is next to the Nehru Memorial Museum; Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, Nehru's Daughter, attended in person the Planetarium opening.

The development of distance education in South Africa: historical background and the University of South Africa

The University of South Africa celebrates its 50th anniversary this year. Over this period it grew, becoming one of the largest tertiary distance education institutions and the largest university on the African continent.

South Africa always had a mixed racial population with each group having its own culture. This difference between people is further aggravated by differences in the level of “westernisation”. Furthermore, South Africa also suffers from an extreme urbanisation problem where on the one hand we find modern cities and on the other tribal groups. All these factors led to a differentiation of the population into a first world and third world component.

In 1858 the government of the Cape Colony decided to institute a board of public examiners in literature and science. The task was to set syllabuses and to set and conduct examinations at college level. In 1864 this board instituted a certificate which was equivalent to the British matriculation certificate. The board only conducted examinations, but offered no training. In 1873 the parliament of the Cape of Good Hope decided to establish the University of the Cape of Good Hope. The University still was an examining body only, which set syllabi, conducted examinations and held graduation ceremonies. Its degrees were recognised by the British Commonwealth.

This institution had to face some very adverse criticism from those who felt that a university can only function in a direct teaching situation, that it was too “foreign” (British) for the country and that it was a mere factory of certificates.

Background

The Teaching and Learning Technology Programme (TLTP) in the UK was launched in 1992 to “develop innovations in teaching and learning through the power of technology”. Increasing numbers of students with mixed abilities and backgrounds were entering into higher education. Flexible course structures and the need for remedial teaching added further motivation in the search for methods of improving productivity and efficiency.

Since 1992 over 33 million of funding has been awarded to 76 projects spanning the university curriculum. When support from host institutions is taken into account, overall funding for the TLTP is estimated at 75 million. TLTP materials are now becoming available to assist institutions in maintaining and enhancing the quality of their teaching provision. The successful implementation of this new technology is requiring each institution to rethink its teaching and learning strategies (Laurillard, 1993).

Approximately one quarter of the projects are based on a single institution and are concerned with the culture change, the integration of technology and staff development. The remainder are consortia concerned with courseware development and involve staff from between two and fifty universities.

Astronomy is represented within one of the largest consortia, the UK Mathematics Courseware Consortium (UKMCC), which has received 1.3 million of TLTP funding. Other projects include Software Teaching of Modular Physics (SToMP) and Statistics Education through Problem Solving (STEPS).

UK Mathematics Courseware Consortium

Mathwise, the product of the UKMCC, is an exciting new computer-based learning environment for students of mathematics in the sciences and engineering (Beilby, 1993 and Harding, 1996). A set of fifty modules in foundation mathematics and its applications are being developed.

Introduction

Education is training, part of which is being able to handle information. At meetings such as this, one learns new ways to teach and to adapt ideas to one's culture in a way they can have a greater influence on the lay person (Pasachoff and Percy, 1990; Percy, 1996). A reason to promote science popularization is to give people a chance to experience the pleasure of understanding.

Traditionally written materials and planetariums were the ideal way to convey astronomical knowledge and to start an interest in science. Now the media, WWW and interactive exhibits are having a great influence on the lay person. Science centres are an important aid for education; they present astronomy in an attractive way, which is sometimes difficult to do at school. It is easier to teach something that pupils enjoy.

This paper will focus on science centres in Mexico; some of the ideas that we have used could help other developing nations with their projects. In order to grasp the differences between other countries and Mexico, I shall only mention that the average education is five years in large cities nad two in the country; 78 million, out of 95 million inhabitants, never buy a book, and only 1 million purchase more than 10 books per year; the introductory astronomy course that is taught to over 200,000 students per year in the USA is only taught to about 60 pupils per year at our National University.

We shall describe some of the activities that science centres can provide in order to aid public understanding of astronomy and the ways in which several very small museums have been installed in Mexico.

A reform of the content of university education is taking place in Russia today. A restoration of human directed principles, the denial of strict ideological components in education and an improvement in the teaching content of the humanities, are among the most important characteristics of the on-going reforms. An important part of today's activities is the introduction of the basics of natural sciences to the process of teaching humanities. We have gained four years experience in the establishment of natural sciences in humanities at the Ural State University (Ekaterinburg, Russia).

Here I present the methodological strategy of the basic general course of Natural History for humanities. The course is compulsory for undergraduate students of all the humanities (Depts. of Art, Philosophy, Sociology and Politology, Philology, History, Journalism and Economics). It begins from the first year and takes 3 semesters in the Dept. of Philosophy (60 hours of lectures and seminars) and 2 semesters in the other Depts. (40 hours of lectures and seminars). The course is united by a general idea — the History of the Earth. It is divided into three parts: (1) Cosmic period of the history of the Earth, (2) Matter and Energy (only for the Dept. of Philosophy), and (3) Geological and biological periods in the history of the Earth. The first (astronomical) part in turn consists of three chapters: (a) Scientific pictures of the world and their creators, (b) The real Universe (state of art geometry and physics of space), (c) “Genesis” (formation and evolution of the Universe, Sun and the Earth).

As yet, astronomy, the most ancient of all sciences, surprisingly is not included in French secondary science classes. Recent trends in favour of a more attractive and motivating scientific education have taken it up.

Astronomy has, at all times, been arising curiosity, and now provides a privileged field to scientific approach :

• Observation of the vault of heaven and its peculiarities

• Description of its general appearance and of the specific movement of stars and Planets

• Measurement of distances, coordinates and angles.

• This will make it possible to define successive models, which will be ever closer to the observed reality.

The obstacle of mathematics must be avoided or bypassed : many devices and demonstration models allow for a simplified and convincing approach. Computers may be valuable tools. My purpose is not to go through the multimedia version of an encyclopaedia but to follow some new trails.

DIGITAL IMAGES are efficient tools for first experiences : observation can be adapted to a specific public and digital images can guide pupils through observation. They facilitate measuring operations : interaction will incite users to creativity and discovery, and numerical models will be exploited much more easily.

The movement of planets is a quite convincing example. I use for that purpose a series of digital images of the sky : each photograph represents the constellation of Taurus, all taken during the 1990–1991 winter. My software allows pupils to recognize the characteristic stars of that region and to locate the moving planet Mars among them.

Solar eclipses draw the attention of the general public to celestial events in the countries from which they are visible, and broad public education programs are necessary to promote safe observations. Most recently, a subcommittee of IAU Commission 46 composed of Julieta Fierro (from the National University of Mexico), the Canadian professor of optometry Ralph Chou (from the University of Waterloo) and me provided information about safe observations of the 24 October 1995 eclipse to people in Pakistan, India, Cambodia, Vietnam, and Guam. An important point is that there are advantages to seeing eclipses, including inspiration to students, and that people must always be given correct information. If scare techniques are used to warn people off eclipses, when it is later found out that the eclipse was not dangerous and, indeed, was spectacular, these students and other individuals will not trust warnings for truly hazardous activities like smoking, drugs, and behavior that puts one at risk for AIDS.

A total eclipse of the Sun is the most spectacular sight that can be seen, in my view, both from its physical and from its emotional impact, with the otherwise powerful Sun disappearing in the middle of the day. Though public interest in eclipses may be intense for only the immediate days preceding them, we can nonetheless take advantage of this interest to carry across important scientific ideas. The notion that the Universe is understandable and, in important ways, predictable, is a powerful idea that acts against the ideas of superstition and pseudoscience that are so rampant.

Introduction

When designing courses in astronomy – or any other science – there is a tendency to assume that the students whom we are addressing are younger versions of ourselves. As undergraduates we studied astronomy and now we are practicing it: it is natural to assume that the students we teach are destined to go on to become scientists themselves. But while this was a perfectly valid assumption in the past, it is valid no longer; and if we do not adjust our teaching methods accordingly, we do our students a grave disservice.

The sad truth is that most of them cannot possibly go on to become practicing scientists – because there are not enough jobs to accommodate them. We are all familiar with the terrible employment market nowadays: there is no need to belabor the point except to make the obvious observation that the situation is not going to get better in the foreseeable future. It is for Malthusian reasons that the job market for scientists is bad, and is going to stay bad on the average except for temporary fluctuations. If each astronomer guided, say, ten students on to PhDs in the course of his or her entire career, the population of astronomers would have multiplied tenfold over that time span – obviously an impossible situation over the long run.

The Humble Space Telescope project aims to launch a small space telescope for educational and recreational purposes, in time for the New Millennium.

The arrival of the 3rd Millennium, accompanied in the United Kingdom by a Millennium Commission distributing 250 million per year of National Lottery funds for good causes and imaginative projects which would otherwise require direct funding by the taxpayer, provides a unique opportunity to design, build and operate a small but capable version of the pioneering Hubble Space Telescope.

In July 1994, a leading British newspaper with a long history of covering developments in science, launched a competition for members of the public to propose science projects to be funded by the Millennium Commission. The idea of a small satellite telescope, fitted with a CCD detector package was submitted by Dr. Martin-Smith, and won a share of the top prize. Meanwhile, Rodney Buckland, a Trustee of the National Science Centre project, took up the idea as an ideal new field site for the Centre, and has become its Project Manager.

It is well established that specialised and initially-expensive technologies – for example Schmidt-Cassegrain optics, CCD cameras, computers and the Internet – began as the advanced tools of professionals, and in time become accessible to amateurs, educators, and the public, for learning and recreation.

Introduction

The UK is experiencing a relative Golden Age for planetaria, thanks in many ways to its national curriculum. In 1991 the British government finally bowed to many years of steady pressure by interest groups and introduced into a new and controversial general curriculum a requirement for pupils to attain knowledge about the Earth-Moon system, solar system objects and basic cosmology. Prior to this there had been no science curriculum for pupils aged under 11. Astronomy formed a small part of nature study. The science education of 11–16 year-olds depended on their GCSE syllabuses.

The purpose of this paper is to study what knowledge of the cosmos pupils are now required to attain, how the content changed when a revised curriculum was introduced in 1994, and how planetaria go about teaching the subject to schoolchildren. We will also look at how the curriculum differs in Scotland, and what ‘A’ level students have to learn about astronomy.

Background

From the late 1950s, when one of the first planetaria in Britain was built at Marylebone Road, London, up to 1991, some teachers had organised their school visits to these star theatres as an extra-curricula activity (except for those students studying astronomy at O-level) which required little or no preparation or class work afterwards. Generally speaking, however, most school parties turned up because they wanted to have a valuable learning experience about the Earth's place in the universe. Then, seemingly overnight, the government expected teachers to have detailed knowledge of the reasons for the seasons, tides, the Moon's phases, planetary motions, the Milky Way and many other difficult astronomical concepts.

What Is An Amateur Astronomer?

Let us begin by defining “amateur astronomer”. According to a dictionary, an amateur astronomer is “someone who loves astronomy, and cultivates it as a hobby”. At IAU colloquium 98 (The Contributions of Amateurs to Astronomy), Williams (1988) discussed this issue at length. He proposed that, to be an amateur astronomer, one must be an astronomer – able to do astronomy with some degree of skill; he then defined an amateur astronomer as “someone who carries out astronomy with a high degree of skill, but not for pay”.

Unfortunately, the word “amateur” has negative connotations to many people. This is partly because of the unfortunate choice of the word; “volunteer astronomers” might be a better choice. It is partly because there are indeed a few amateurs whose ideas and attitudes might be judged rather bizarre – but the same is true for some professionals. There might even be a hint of snobbery, especially in cultures in which qualifications (as opposed to ability) are paramount. Professionals certainly respect the contributions of the “superstars” of amateur astronomy: Prank Bateson, Robert Evans, Patrick Moore and the like. We tend to hold these people as examples, though very few amateurs are willing or able to contribute at this level. There are thousands of “rank-and-file amateurs” worldwide. They can and do contribute significantly to the advancement of astronomy.

I prefer to define amateur astronomer extremely broadly. In this case, their education, knowledge, skills at instrumentation, computing, observing, teaching and other astronomical activities could be anything from zero to PhD level in astronomy or a related field. Many amateur astronomers are professionals in other scientific or technical fields.

For decades, planetariums have been created to serve the cause of astronomical enlightenment – to offer people knowledge and understanding and a sense of place in a universe far bigger than themselves. It is an important role and one that we in planetariums continue to play – changing, we hope, as times, technology, educational philosophies, and our view of the universe change.

The first projection planetarium was demonstrated by the Zeiss Optical Company at the Deutsches Museum in Munich, Germany in 1923. By 1970, the height of the Apollo moon program, there were an estimated 700 to 800 planetariums in the world, half of them less than six years old. Today, 26 years later, that number has more than doubled to a little over 2,000.

The world organization of the planetarium profession is the International Planetarium Society with over 600 members in more than 30 countries. Based on figures compiled in the 1995 IPS Directory, we find that slightly more than half of the world's planetariums are located in North America, with large numbers also in Asia and Europe, but relatively few in other parts of the world. If we consider distribution by country, we find that half are in the United States, more than 300 are in Japan, and Germany ranks third with nearly 100. Nineteen countries have ten or more planetariums.

Some 33 percent of the worlds’ planetariums are located in primary or secondary schools; 17 percent are at colleges and universities; 15 percent are part of museums and science centers; 7 percent are associated with observatories or other institutions.

Introduction

Distance education has a track record in astronomy and is already making a significant contribution worldwide. It will make an even greater contribution in the future, not only at-a-distance, but through greater use of self-study materials on- campus, where it will liberate staff for more appropriate forms of face-to-face teaching, and help overcome the need to do more and more with less and less resource. Distance education offers huge promise in meeting the educational needs of a burgeoning world population, and because low costs can be achieved there is no need for people in areas of material deprivation to face mental deprivation also. The IAU and The Open University can be proactive in promoting the spread of distance education, and of self-study on campus.

What is (successful) distance education?

Distance education is NOT as shown in Figure 1, though its distinctive feature is that the student is remote from the university or college! But in place of a megaphone a mixture of media is used in which printed texts usually carry the bulk of the educational material. There can also be audiovisual and computing media (including use of the Internet and of “multimedia”), and practical work. It is important to play to the strengths of the various media – a current pitfall is that multimedia can turn out to be little more than an expensive book.