There are several questions in the field of the study of giant extragalactic HII regions (GEHRs) that remain controversial. The origin of the observed supersonic motions and the validity of the relationship between size and velocity dispersion obtained on the base of single-aperture observations are still debated. From a purely observational point of view, the spatial extent of kinematical features within the nebula, the sense in assuming Gaussian profiles as representative of the variety of emision lines found in GEHR, and finally how lawful the assignment of a single value (σ, R) as a defining kinematical parameter of a GEHR are also questioned. The energy input required to provide the supersonic motions observed in GEHRs has been the subject of several scenarios proposed in the literature and some of the points in favour and/or against them are mentioned in this contribution.

Bidimensional spectroscopy with good spatial and spectral resolution, sampling of a particular emision line over the whole emitting area, is shown to be the most suitable observational technique for understanding the global kinematics of GEHRs. In NGC 604 for instance, features like loops and filaments although clearly seen in deep exposures and obviously resulting from stellar winds and SN explosions, do not dominate the bulk of the emission that comes from smaller but much brighter areas. Thus the total flux from split or non-Gaussian profiles that arise from shells and/or filaments is much lower than that obtained from bright knots where line profiles are well fitted by Gaussians.

We present long-slit optical and near-infrared spectroscopy of the giant HII region NGC 4236III. We have found broad emission lines at 4686 Å attributed to WR stars. We have derived the physical conditions and chemical composition of the nebula.

Introduction

HII regions are one of the most useful tools to study the properties of massive stars as well as the physical conditions and chemical composition of the interstellar medium. One of the target of the GEFE programme is the giant HII region NGC 4236III located in the outskirts of the SBd galaxy NGC 4236. The object was observed with the 4.2-m WHT telescope in La Palma, using the blue and the red arms of the ISIS spectrograph and an EEV CCD in each arm. The dispersion was 1.4 Åpix−1, and the spatial sampling 0.33 arcsec pix−1.

Results

The emission of the region is extended over 15 arcsec. Three different spectra were extracted (A, B, C). These spectra are typical of high-excitation HII regions. In B (Figure la), where most of the continuum emission is concentrated, we have detected a broad emission bump at 4686 Å which is attributed to WR stars.

The distribution of the emission lines Hα, [OIII], [OII], [NII] and [SIII] are quite similar; they show a maximum at 1.5 arcsec to the North of the peak of the continuum distribution.

We studied the content of massive stars in the nearby HII region 30 Doradus and in the distant nuclear starburst NGC 7552. Ultraviolet imaging and ultraviolet spectroscopy with the Hubble Space Telescope and the International Ultraviolet Explorer have been obtained. The observational data have been compared with evolutionary population synthesis models in an attempt to constrain the star-formation history and mass spectrum of the two starburst regions. Despite the different physical and chemical conditions, the high-mass end of the mass functions in 30 Dor and NGC 7552 are remarkably similar.

30 Doradus and NGC 7552 — basic properties

30 Doradus in the Large Magellanic Cloud is the closest giant extragalactic HII region (GEHR). The combination of its relative proximity and its location outside the plane of our Milky Way makes 30 Dor a prime laboratory for the study of the formation and evolution of the most massive stars. Walborn (1991) reviewed the basic properties of 30 Dor, designating it the “Starburst Rosett”. 30 Dor is metal-deficient with respect to the Sun (Z = 0.3 Z⊙) and has only a moderate interstellar reddening of E(B − V) = 0.4. At a distance of 0.05 Mpc, 1″ corresponds to a linear distance of 0.25 pc. The most massive stars are concentrated within a few arcsec of the center of 30 Dor.

Recent observations of X-ray spectra of AGNs can be used to compare the “classical” black-hole type model for such objects with the starburst scenario emphasized in this meeting. The most important aspects of the observations are the commonly observed soft X-ray absorption, the Kα line profile and intensity, the X-ray variability and the hard X-ray cut-off. Modelling the observed X-ray spectrum requires an understanding of the absorption, emission and scattering properties of neutral and ionized gases. Examples from new calculations, including all these components, are shown and compared with the observations. Progress made on the observational and theoretical sides seem to give at least some satisfactory answers to previously open questions of the black-hole model. It remains to be seen whether the starburst model can come up with an equally good explanation.

Introduction

The purpose of this review is to summarize some well known facts, as well as new X-ray observations of various types of AGNs, and to confront them with suggested models. Since X-ray properties involve emission, absorption and scattering it is useful to stop, at each sub-section, and ask the question, What are the physical properties of the emitting, absorbing and scattering material? These are related to the location of the various components, their motion and other properties. They can provide an answer to the central question posed in this meeting, about the relationship between “classical” AGNs, hosting a giant black-hole, and violent star-forming events in nuclei of galaxies.

Near-infrared spectral imaging observations of the starburst galaxy NGC 1808 and of the Seyfert galaxy NGC 1068 are briefly discussed.

Introduction

Most of the presentations at this meeting have focussed on optical, ultraviolet, and X-ray observations of starburst galaxies (SBGs) and active galactic nuclei (AGN) and their interpretation. In this contribution I draw attention to the utility of infrared array spectroscopy and millimeter-wave interferometry to the study of energetic galaxy nuclei.

Infrared spectral observations are useful because they probe objects with large internal or foreground extinctions. Many interstellar sources such as photon-dominated regions in molecular clouds or non-dissociative shocks release energy at primarily infrared wavelengths. Millimeter spectroscopy provides information about the molecular medium which is not readily observable at optical, UV or X-ray wavelengths.

In this article I discuss infrared observations of the starburst galaxy NGC 1808 and of the Seyfert galaxy NGC 1068 carried out by members of the MPE group (Blietz et al. 1994; Krabbe, Sternberg & Genzel 1994; Taconni et al. 1994). Most of this work was carried out using the MPE infrared array spectrometer FAST (Krabbe et al. 1993).

NGC 1808

NGC 1808 is a nearby (10.9 Mpc, for H0 = 75 km s−1 Mpc−1) morphologically peculiar spiral galaxy (Sersic and Pastoriza 1965). Optical images show that several dust filaments protrude from the nucleus out into the galactic halo.

Observations are reported for 16 of the 25 galaxies found in the Bootes void. At least five of the galaxies are spirals, and another five are disk systems. Two interacting galaxy pairs have been definitely identified, and there are additional candidate pairs. Several of the galaxies are luminous in Hα, due in most cases to significant amounts of star formation. The observed galaxies do not resemble the galaxies predicted to inhabit voids. There is evidence for structure in the spatial distribution of the galaxies, in particular half the galaxies are located in a single plane 10 Mpc wide.

Introduction

The Bootes void, a spherical region with radius 62 Mpc at a distance of 310 Mpc (H0 = 50 km s−1 Mpc−1), is one of the largest known low-density regions in the large-scale distribution of galaxies (Kirshner et al. 1981, 1987). Projected on the sky its diameter subtends an angle of 23°. Identifications of 25 galaxies in Bootes have been published. Almost all of these galaxies were discovered from spectroscopy of samples selected from IRAS and objective prism surveys (see Weistrop et al. 1992 for references). Comparisons with more populated parts of the universe indicate the galaxy density in the Bootes void is about one-third the normal density (Weistrop 1989; Dey, Strauss, & Huchra 1990). This region is therefore a good one in which to investigate the effects of a low-density environment on galaxy evolution, and to compare the nature of the galaxies observed in voids with the predictions of the types of galaxies to be found in voids.

We report on new Planetary Camera observations of the central region of 30 Doradus. These PC images are the first “deep” HST exposures of 30 Doradus that have appropriate photometric calibration. With R136a at the center of the PC6 CCD chip, the image reveals over 800 stars in a 35″ × 35″ area, and over 200 stars within 3″.3 of the center of R136a. We used the PSF-fitting method of Malumuth et al. (1991) to measure the magnitudes of all detected stars on the PC6 chip. We used these new B magnitudes, along with U and V magnitudes derived from archived PC images, to derive the luminosity function, mass density profile, and Initial Mass Function of the 30 Doradus ionizing cluster. We find that the mass distribution is like that of a King model, with a core radius of 0″.96 (0.24 pc), and a total mass of 17,000 solar masses. Both the luminosity function and the IMF show evidence for mass segregation in the sense that the central region has a higher fraction of massive stars than the outer region of 30 Doradus.

Introduction

30 Doradus is one of the most interesting and important objects in the nearby part of the Universe. Walborn (1991) goes as far as to call the 30 Doradus region of the LMC a Rosetta stone for the interpretation of similar, more distant regions. It is no coincidence that 30 Doradus was among the first objects observed with the Hubble Space Telescope.

The identification and classification of young star groups in other galaxies is still a controversial topic (Battinelli 1991a). Very different estimates of OB association sizes in different galaxies were explained by Hodge (1986) by a difference in linear resolution and limiting magnitude, but the existence of two kinds of resolved star groups is also essential in this issue. The bulk of OB associations are members of larger groups, star complexes (Efremov 1978), of diameter 400–1000 pc that also include individual fainter and older stars, such as Cepheids. There exists a hierarchical, embedded sequence of young star groups: there are associations, aggregates, complexes and supercomplexes (regions). Associations and complexes are the more common ones (Efremov 1988, 1989, 1993).

Given sufficient resolution and limiting magnitude, one can see both complexes as well as brighter and smaller associations mainly inside complexes, and such is the case for M31, where Efremov, Ivanov & Nikolov (1987; hereafter EIN) found, by eye, OB associations of typically 80 pc diameter and star complexes of typically 600 pc. The latter complexes are mainly the same large groups of blue stars that were identified by van den Bergh (1964) under the name of OB associations.

The issue arises whether one has simply OB associations with a large range of sizes, the smaller ones being younger as suggested by van den Bergh 1964, or if there exist two kinds of star groups of different hierarchical level, with younger ones as constituent parts of larger and older ones, as suggested by Efremov (1978, 1989) and EIN.

A chemical evolution model is combined with a fully hydrodynamical code to follow the evolution of elliptical galaxies from the protogalaxy stage. In this way, the single-zone assumption, usual in chemical evolution models, is dropped. This allows the investigation of radial metallicity gradients, and, in particular the formation of the high-metallicity core in ellipticals. The star formation rate and the subsequent supernova heating regulate the episodes of wind, outflow, and cooling flow, thus affecting the recycling of the gas and the chemical enrichment of the intergalactic medium.

Introduction

In this work, a chemical evolution model is combined with a hydrodynamical model to follow the evolution of elliptical galaxies from the protogalactic stage. One motivation for the present study comes from the starburst model for QSOs (Terlevich & Boyle 1993 and references therein). In this model, the QSOs are the young cores of massive ellipticals forming most of the dominant metal-rich population in a short starburst. Since QSOs are seen up to redshifts of z ∼ 5, the suprasolar metallicities required by this models should be reached by ∼ 1 Gyr since the epoch of galaxy formation. This evolutionary time scale is an important constraint in chemical enrichment models. Hamann & Ferland (1992) have used one-zone chemical evolution models to investigate the chemical history of QSOs with results consistent with the starburst model of QSOs.

We discuss the effects of a change of the mass loss rates of massive stars on the outputs of population synthesis models of starbursts. We find that models with high mass loss rates well account for the observed ratios of WNL to O-type stars in starburst galaxies.

Stellar evolutionary tracks and starburst models

The stellar populations as observed after a starburst episode depend on:

• The intensity as a function of time of the star formation rate (SFR) during the starburst. The observed properties of the starburst may also depend on the much lower SFR if this prevails between bursts of star formation. However, for very intense bursts, these “underlying” populations can be completely blurred out by the numerous new born stars.

• The slope of the initial mass function (IMF) and the lower and upper mass limits of the stars born in the burst.

• The time elapsed since the beginning of the burst (which we shall call here the age of the starburst).

• Some physical ingredients of the stellar models as, for instance, the mass loss rates by stellar winds and the metallicity.

• […]

Galactic bulges probably formed in starbursts such as those studied during this conference. We study the population contents and spatial structure of bulges to learn on the star formation history of these systems. From broadband optical CCD images we derive mean colours and colour gradients for a complete sample of ∼ 40 bulges of edge-on galaxies. After excluding objects with dust, the colours trace age and metallicity of the stellar populations. Metallicities inferred from the colours seldom reach solar values. This result is consistent with recent metallicity estimates for the Milky Way (MW) Bulge derived from spectroscopy of K giants. Colour profiles have negative slopes, i.e. colours become bluer outward. The derived gradients are similar to those observed in elliptical galaxies. Gradients of more luminous bulges are steeper than those of smaller bulges.

Introduction

Our notions on the stellar content of spiral bulges are largely derived from studies of a few nearby cases, notably our own MW Bulge. We know that the spectra of bulges often resemble more the strong-lined spectra of elliptical nuclei than those of metal-poor halo stars (Whitford 1978). It is also known that the MW Bulge, at Baade's window (BW) at least, contains stars of very high metallicity (Rich 1988).

Wolf-Rayet galaxies are a subset of starburst galaxies whose integrated spectra reveal the presence of hundreds to thousands of Wolf-Rayet stars. These galaxies exhibit a number of other properties indicative of a large “starburst” population of young, hot, massive stars. We have obtained optical ground-based and ultraviolet HST images of several Wolf-Rayet galaxies and present examples of the spatial morphologies observed at these wavelengths. Large star-forming regions which appear to be single units in the optical are resolved into numerous compact bright knots in the ultraviolet HST images. These multiple starburst knots are typically less than 100 pc in size and too small and closely spaced to be detected individually in the ground-based optical images. Yet they contain large numbers of hot stars and are typically several times as luminous as 30 Doradus, the giant HII region in the LMC. The intense bursts of star formation in these knots probably began only a few Myr ago and lasted less than about 1 Myr. It is possible that these knots represent proto-globular clusters which were formed as the result of recent galaxy mergers and/or interactions.

Introduction

Wolf-Rayet (W-R) galaxies are a subset of HII galaxies in whose integrated optical spectra a broad resolved HeII λ4686 emission feature has been detected (Conti 1991 and references therein).

We looked at galaxies with line ratios, which put them close to the borderline between starburst galaxies and LINERs/Seyferts in diagnostic diagrams. Comparison of the observed line ratios with line ratios from various models indicates the presence of a composite ionising mechanism: star formation in combination with either an active nucleus or with shocks. This is in agreement with the increasing number of observations of active nuclei with circumnuclear star formation and of starburst nuclei surrounded by shock-ionised shells. The far-infrared properties confirm the important role played by star formation in these galaxies.

Introduction

We searched the literature for galaxies, which, on the basis of their optical line ratios, could not be uniquely classified as either starburst galaxies or Seyferts/LINERs. The (arbitrary) selection criterion used was that the [NII]/Hα ratio should be within 0.3 from the empirical borderline between starbursts and Seyferts/LINERs in the log([NII] λ6583/Hα) vs. log([OIII] λ5007/Hβ) diagram (Veilleux & Osterbrock 1987). In all cases this also meant that the observed log([SII] λ6716+31/Hα) and log([OI] λ6300/Hα) ratios were close to their corresponding borderlines. In this way a total of 62 galaxies was selected. All selected galaxies are spiral galaxies, mostly late type: 54% are Sb and 27% Sc galaxies. The percentage of barred galaxies is 39%.

We used the photoionisation code CLOUDY to see if the observed line ratios can be explained by a single ionising mechanism, i.e. by a starburst or by an active nucleus.

In this paper we discuss the differences between normal supernova remnants (SNRs) evolving in comparatively low-density ambient media (n0 ≪ 105 cm−3) and “compact” supernova remnants that evolve in the high-density (n0 > 104 cm−3) environment that one would expect to find in starburst regions of galaxies. For normal SNRs, radiative losses do not start to become important until time scales of the order of 104 yr, after the onset of thin shell formation. For compact SNRs, however, the evolution proceeds at a much quicker pace, with radiative losses due to free-free emission, given the high temperatures (≥ 107 K), being important because of the high densities. The onset of thin shell formation in this case occurs over time scales of the order of years, and most of the radiation is emitted in X-rays and the UV. We argue that the compact supernova activity associated with starburst regions in the centers of galaxies gives rise to most of the typical properties of the Broad Line Regions of active galactic nuclei.

Introduction

Starbursts are usually traced by their bright photoionized regions and large cluster luminosities, in either optical or IR wavelengths. The mass spectrum of the resulting stellar groups is difficult to derive but a large fraction of massive stars is usually implied. Stars with initial masses above ∼ 8 M⊙ have strong UV radiation fields and significant mass loss during their whole evolution, and they are also the progenitors of Type II and Ib supernovae (SNe).

We present a kinematical study of NGC 604 in the emission lines of Hα and [OIII] λ5007 Å, based on data obtained with TAURUS-2, a Fabry-Perot imaging spectrograph. The main result is that the global supersonic velocity value is dominated by emission coming from the two maximum brightness peaks covering an area of about 12 arcsec.

NGC 604, located in M33, is one of the most prominent giant extragalactic HII regions (GEHR). It was observed with TAURUS-2 at the 4.2-m William Herschel Telescope (La Palma), with the Image Photon Counting System (IPCS) as detector. Two data cubes, each with an integration time of 3600 sec, were obtained in the emission line of Hα and [OIII] λ5007. The 125-µm etalon was used, which gave a free spectral range for Hα of 17.6 Å (806.6 km s−1) and 10.0 Å (596.1 km s−1) for [OIII]. The velocity resolution (σ of the calibration line) was 23.1 km s−1 for Hα and 19.6 km s−1 for [OIII].

In order to determine the origin of the supersonic mass motion in NGC 604, the kinematics of the region were analyzed by means of individual spectra, applying automatic fitting routines with single Gaussian fits. The measured velocity dispersions were corrected for instrumental and thermal broadening. The thermal velocity dispersion correction was calculated assuming Te = 10,000 K.

Star formation in general and violent star formation in particular as observed in dwarf irregular galaxies are discussed. Emphasis is placed on those qualities of dwarf irregular galaxies that may be regarded as controversial. In particular, the conditions leading to star formation and the effects of star formation on the chemical and dynamical evolution of a dwarf irregular galaxy are discussed.

Introduction

The title of this talk reflects a relatively broad reach, and I have no aspirations of achieving an all-encompassing review. To find such material, I recommend the reviews of Elmegreen (1992), Franco (1992), Hunter (1992), Kennicutt (1992), and Melnick (1992) in the proceedings of the Third Canary Islands Winter School of Astrophysics on Star Formation in Stellar Systems. Altogether, I believe that these lectures will provide an excellent background from which to discuss the problem of star formation in dwarf galaxies.

Instead, I would like to take this opportunity to discuss some of what I consider to be the points of contention one might encounter in the more lengthy reviews. To get right to the point, my discussion will take the form of a presentation of my prejudices. In preparing this talk, I was able to assemble my prejudices and review the observations and theories that led to their development. To admit that these are prejudices, I think, allows them to be openly confronted by both myself and others.

ROSAT and optical observations of NGC 4861 and NGC 5408, two HII galaxies exhibiting both narrow Hell λ4686 emission line and luminous soft X-ray emission reveal that X-ray and line emitting regions are spatially distinct. This demonstrates that the X-ray ionization mechanism which accounts for the HeIII regions around luminous X-ray sources in the LMC is not at work on a large scale in these two HII galaxies. We Briefly review alternative explanations for the formation of the narrow Hell λ4686 line. The X-ray spectrum of NGC 4861 is soft and probably not dominated by young accreting neutron stars. Accreting black holes of stellar masses, hot gas and SNRs may account for the integrated X-ray energy distribution.

Introduction

Although the strength of most emission lines observed in HII galaxies are in excellent agreement with those expected from the ionization by clusters of massive O stars, the presence of narrow, presumably nebular HeII λ4684 emission with an intensity of ≈ 1 % of that of Hβ in some HII galaxies is not yet well understood (see e.g. Campbell 1988; Conti, 1991). There are strong indications that the gas is photoionized and that shock excitation, if present at all, is not responsible for the emission of this high-ionization line. The origin of the luminous He+ Lyman continuum is currently a matter of debate since normal O stars have generally been thought to emit only negligible amounts of He+ ionizing photons.

I discuss some of the predictions of the Starburst model for AGNs, in particular the relation between observational parameters like the average blue luminosity, the amplitude of variability, the frequency of slow peaks in the light curve, and the time-averaged equivalent width of Hβ.

The number of slow peaks or SN events in the light curve of low-luminosity AGNs is uniquely related to the nuclear luminosity. An AGN with MB(min) ∼ −21.5 produces 1 slow peak (or SN) per year. This result is independent of the initial mass function, age and/or total mass of the cluster.

The time-averaged equivalent width of Hβ is related to the total energy of the SN, almost independently of the initial mass function, age and/or total mass of the cluster and of the assumed cosmology; the observed constancy of the value of the equivalent width of Hβ in AGNs is a direct consequence of the universal value of the energy released in a SN explosion.

The long term variability of AGNs as a function of their luminosity has a peak at a luminosity similar to the maximum luminosity of cSNR (i.e. MB ∼ −20). AGNs with both larger and smaller luminosity than MB ∼ −20 should be less variable than those with MB ∼ −20.

Where the phenomenon of wavelength-dependent kinematics has been observed in galaxies, it has been well modelled as a dust extinction effect. Therefore “compact mass features” in rotation curves close to the nuclei of dusty inclined galaxies may not be caused by dynamical effects, but by differential extinction by circumnuclear dust. NGC 7331 exhibits this phenomenology.

Introduction

The kinematics of the zones around the nuclei of galaxies are of exceptional interest, especially in the context of tests for very compact central objects (black holes). A number of nearby galaxies show striking kinematic features around their nuclei and have been well modelled by adding a central point mass to an otherwise smoothly varying bulge distribution, yielding the steep velocity gradients, dispersions and “shoulders” in their rotation curves (Bower et al. 1993). Given the exceptional interest in the presence of supermassive compact objects, however, it may not be surprising that, in at least some cases, remarkable circumnuclear kinematical effects may have been overinterpreted. In previous spectroscopy of dusty, highly inclined galaxies we have found systematic steepening of velocity curves from the near-UV to the near-IR (McKeith et al. 1993), which is convincingly modelled via dust extinction (Prada et al. 1994).

Data and results

To see how the observable rotation curve of the dusty spiral inclined galaxy NGC 7331 varies with wavelength we took long-slit spectra with the ISIS spectrograph on the 4.2-m WHT (La Palma), with the slit along the major axis centred on the optical nucleus.