We present narrow-band Hα imaging and long-slit optical and near-infrared spectroscopy of the starburst galaxy NGC 7714. We have detected WR stars in the starburst region, which indicate an age for the burst of between 3 and 5 Myr. We have obtained the physical condition of the gas in the starburst region and in three HII regions. These have moderately low abundances, while the nucleus has half solar abundance, with an overabundance of N.

Introduction

A typical starburst galaxy can be defined as a spiral galaxy with a bright nucleus bluer than expected for its morphological type, which emits strong narrow emission lines similar to low-ionization HII region spectra, as a consecuence of the photoionization by the ultraviolet radiation of hot stars, with typical Hα luminosities ranging from 1040 to 1042 erg s−1. During this intense recent burst of star formation between 107 and 1010 M⊙ of massive stars are formed within a radius of a few hundred pc about its nucleus.

NGC 7714, the prototype of the starburst (henceforth SB) galaxies (Weedman et al, 1981) and classified as a SBb peculiar, is in interaction with the irregular galaxy NGC 7715. The X-ray luminosity (6 1040 erg s−1) is explained with about 104 supernova remmants in a volume of 280 pc radius (Weedman et al. 1981). The 6-cm radio map shows a weak double radio structure separated by about 1 arcsec at p.a = 30°.

The 30 Doradus nebula is the nearest example of a giant HII region, and as such it offers a unique laboratory for studying in detail the structure, stellar content, and dynamics of a starburst region. We begin with an overview of the 30 Doradus region on scales of 0.1–1000 pc, and then discuss two current problems of particular relevance to this conference, the stellar content and IMF in 30 Dor, and the violent dynamics of its interstellar medium.

Introduction

It is a pleasure to open a conference where 30 Doradus defines the bottom end of the star formation scale! The 30 Doradus region offers a most appropriate starting point for a conference on star formation in galaxies. It is the nearest example of a bona fide giant extragalactic HII region (GEHR), and it is the largest star forming region in the Local Group. It is large enough to exhibit many of the properties of the most luminous starbursts, yet close enough so that its physical structure and stellar content can be studied in detail. As such 30 Dor and other nearby GEHRs provide several crucial pieces of information about starbursts in general. They are the only regions where the embedded stellar population can be resolved and studied directly; this provides a unique stellar census of a starburst, which can be used to test the synthesis models which must be applied to more distant, unresolved GEHRs and starbursts.

The process of galaxy formation is one of the crucial problems of modern astronomy. Galactic alignments are important as a test of the various available scenarios for galaxy origin which predict different types of alignments. A method for investigating the galactic rotational axes is applied to two samples of galaxies chosen from the UGC, ESO and NGC catalogs for testing different models of galaxy formation. In the whole Supercluster the planes tend to be oriented perpendicularly to the Local Supercluster (LSC) plane. The effects strongly depend on the supergalactic coordinates. We compare the observed distribution of galactic rotation axes with theoretical models. Our results support the so-called “pancake” or “hedgehog” galaxy formation scenario and exclude the “turbulence” models. Moreover, we have some evidence on the importance of membership of clusters belonging to the LSC.

Introduction

Galactic alignments are a crucial problem for understanding the process of galaxy formation. Various scenarios of galaxy origin predict different types of galaxy alignments within superclusters. Analysis of LSC galaxies (Flin & Godlowski 1986; Godlowski 1991, 1992, 1993) has shown that the preferred orientation of the galactic plane is perpendicular to the LSC plane, and that the projection of the rotational axis on the LSC plane tends to be directed towards the Virgo Cluster center. The distributions of face-on and edge-on galaxies are different.

Central gaseous disks around the nuclei of flat galaxies continually increase their mass due to spiralling giant molecular clouds (GMCs) under the action of dynamical friction. The radius of the disk depends on a tidal condition in the central parts of a galaxy equal to GMC tidal disruption distance. A central part of the disk can become molecular and be able to undergo a subsequent spontaneous burst of star formation when the mean surface density of the disk becomes larger than the critical UV-opacity column density. In the outer parts of the disk, formation of gaseous clumps and stellar aggregates can be self-consistent with a characteristic clump mass of 107M⊙ and new-born stellar masses of 106M⊙ in each clump. This scenario is a good approximation to the observable characteristics of central molecular disks of normal galaxies like ours. However, the interaction of galaxies must modify the maximum cloud and stellar aggregate mass up to ∼ 108M⊙ and lead to stimulated bursts of star formation.

Introduction

Bursts of star formation are frequently observed in the nuclear regions of galaxies. Observations have revealed compact nuclei surrounded by an extended disk, or disk-like HII regions with radii of about 200–500 pc (Wilson et al. 1991). These regions are, as a rule, the brightest HII regions in such galaxies. One of the main reasons for such intense starbursts is the high star formation efficiency (SFE) in galactic nuclear regions (Planesas et al. 1989).

X-ray variability in the 0.1 – 2.4 keV ROSAT energy band with a doubling time scale of 800 s and a factor of 4 within a few hours has been detected in a 20 ksec pointing on the AGN IRAS 13224-3809. The optical spectrum indicates that IRAS 13224-3809 is a narrow-line Seyfert 1 galaxy with strong permitted Fell emission, a member of the unusual I Zw 1 class objects. IRAS 13224-3809 appears to be the most rapidly varying AGN known so far. This is the first time that variability on a time scale smaller than 1000 s is reported at such high X-ray luminosity [L(0.1 − 2.4 keV) = 3 · 1044 erg s−1] in Seyfert galaxies. It is also the first reported X-ray variability in I Zw 1 class objects. The Δt = 800 s variation indicates that the X-rays come from a compact region of about 17 light minutes in size. Our results from the X-ray spectral analysis favour a scenario in which a hard X-ray source irradiates the accretion disk which reemits at soft X-ray energies. The absence of broad HI wings can be explained only if a part of the BLR, far from the centre, is observed and the bulk of the region, which emits the wings, is hidden. We want to draw attention to the fact that rapid X-ray variability could also be connected with the absence of broad HI lines in IRAS 13224-3809.

UGCA 86 (= VII Zw 009) is a companion of IC 342 and is one of the nearest starburst galaxies. It contains at least two starbursts, of which the central one is heavily obscured by dust. The IR radiation (IRAS has a relatively steep (cool) spectrum. The X-radiation (ROSAT pointed observation) seems to come from supernovae.

Introduction

In our optical observations of UGCA 86 (Richter et al. 1991) we found it to be a low surface brightness dwarf galaxy which contains two star formation regions, a central one and one near the southern border. Whereas the southern burst seems relatively normal, the central one is heavily reddened and has also a “softer” appearance (cf. Saha & Hoessel 1991). Together with the finding of an IR source in the IRAS catalog these facts fit very well the assumption that the central burst contains a large amount of dust.

Because the catalogued IRAS position did not fit the optical position well, we reprocessed the IRAS observation and observed the galaxy with a ROSAT pointing.

Observations

We have reprocessed the IRAS data using the GIPSY-IRAS system developed by the Laboratory for Space Research at Groningen (see Wesselius et al. 1992). High-resolution IRAS images were processed in Groningen using a maximum entropy method. While the IRAS Point Source Catalog shows only one source at the area of UGCA 86, the high-resolution images clearly reveal four sources.

Detailed Hα line investigations of the gas kinematics in the supershell around the Cyg OBI association were carried out. The supershell contains nebulae and CO-cavities around WR and Of stars which form a hierarchical system of mutually embedded gaseous dust shells. The nebulae around WR 134, 135, 141 and 142 and the SNR G73.9+0.9 are shown to be located at the far edge of the parent molecular cloud at Vlsr ∼ 5 − 10 km s−1. We found high negative velocities up to 70 km s−1 and [OIII]-Hα emission stratification typical for shocks. Both could be associated with stellar wind and SNe. The collective wind and ionizing radiation of the Cyg OBI stars (especially WR) and supernova explosions must play some role in forming the supershell. There are some reasons to suppose that the gas at the sound velocity Vlsr ∼ 12 km s−1 is flowing dowmstream of the ionization front.

Six years ago Lozinskaya & Sitnik, 1988 discovered a hierarchical system of mutually embedded gaseous-dust shells in the Cygnus arm (73 < l < 78°, −0°· 5 < b < 3°). In the sky plane this system consists of several small-size shells around WR and Of stars (NGC 6888 among them) inside the supershell around Cyg OBI association (Figure 1). The supershell (diameter about 100 pc) and inner shells of different sizes are seen as optical ring nebulae, radio-shells, CO-cavities (Lozinskaya & Sitnik, 1988) and IR supershells (Lozinskaya & Repin,1991; Saken et.al, 1992).

The propagating star formation model with anisotropic probability distribution is investigated. In each star-forming site we define the probability ellipse and show that its two parameters, the excentricity and the orientation relative to the galactic rotation, are closely related to the thickness and inclination of the resulting spiral arms. The relative size of a star-forming region with respect to the whole galaxy is also discussed. Simulations are compared to the observed galactic morphologies and we mimic the differences between the two groups of galaxies of types M101 and NGC 7217.

Propagating star formation

The idea that star formation at one place in a galaxy can initiate star formation in its neighbourhood was first suggested by Öpik (1953) and Oort (1954). Since then, a possible chain of physical processes that joins two regions of subsequent star formation has been proposed in which ionizing radiation from massive stars in a cluster leads to the disruption of the parental molecular cloud via supersonic champagne flows halting further star formation. The mechanical energy input from stellar winds and supernova explosions causes the agglomeration of gas in expanding shells. Their fragmentation, the building of molecules in high opacity areas, and large-scale gravitational instabilities may produce molecular clouds, where the next generation of star formation occurs.

The star-forming cycle described above is the basis of deterministic PSF models (Palouš et al. 1994). However, the physical parameters such as density, metallicity and cooling times of the ISM, are only partly known.

Starbursts in four galaxy locations are discussed: on the periphery and in tidally ejected debris, in the main disk, in inner Lindblad resonance rings, and in the nucleus. Starbursts in dwarfs are also briefly mentioned. Possible reasons for the starbursts are summarized, mostly in the context of two theoretical models, one where star formation is initiated spontaneously by gravitational instabilities in disks, spiral arms or rings, and another where star formation is stimulated by high-pressure star clusters. The observed rates, efficiencies, and durations of star formation in all five regions follow from the models. We emphasize the importance of a critical density for star formation, which is approximately κ2/G for epicyclic frequency κ, and the importance of large-scale radial gas flows. Star formation tends to occur wherever the density exceeds the critical value. The rate of star formation is very large in inner rings and nuclear regions because the critical density is very high there. Normal galaxy disks have lower rates because of their lower κ. This difference in rates implies that inner rings and nuclear regions of galaxies can maintain their star formation for much shorter times than the main disks following an episode of gas accretion that makes the density exceed the critical value. Thus only the inner regions will have major fluctuations in the star formation rate. Normal galaxy disks probably have fluctuations too, but with lower amplitudes and longer durations.

I review recent results on the cosmological evolution of QSOs identified at optical, X-ray and radio frequencies. In all these regimes, it is now clear that the redshift range 2 ≲ z ≲ 3 corresponds to the epoch of maximum QSO activity. I demonstrate that QSO models invoking supermassive black holes or the starburst cores of young elliptical galaxies are equally successful at reproducing the observed space densities of even the most luminous QSOs in the Universe at these redshifts. In addition, both models can also account for the strong decline in QSO luminosity, L(z) ∝ (1 + z)3.0±0.4, observed in all regimes at lower redshifts (z ≲ 2). In the infrared and X-ray passbands, recent results suggest that starburst galaxies may also exhibit a remarkably similar rate of evolution to QSOs, L(z) ∝ (1 + z)3±1.

Introduction

In the last few years there has been a dramatic increase in the numbers of QSOs identified in complete spectroscopic surveys. In particular, a significant number of high redshift QSOs have now been identified, including more than 40 QSOs at z > 4. The mere existence of these high redshift QSOs, coupled with their inferred high metal abundances (Hamann & Ferland 1993; Ferland, this conference), indicates the presence of a significant number of massive, evolved systems only ∼ 1 Gyr after the Big Bang.

SN 1979C (a type II-L), known for its powerful radio emission, was the first SN II where the late-time Hα luminosity was attributed to the ejecta-wind interaction (Chevalier & Fransson 1985). Yet the success of the radioactive model for the late-time luminosity of SN 1987A raised the problem of choosing between radioactive and shock-wave mechanisms in SN II. One possible solution was prompted by the observed excess in the Hα luminosity of SN 1980K (also type II-L and a strong radio emitter) at t = 670 days, relative to the predictions of the radioactive model (Chugai 1988). The interpretation of the excess in terms of the ejecta-wind interaction was supported by the strong radio luminosity and wide flat-top profile of Hα.

Introduction

Red giant stars on the asymptotic giant branch (AGB) lose considerable amounts of matter in a slow wind, and a circumstellar envelope (CSE) of gas and dust is formed. The CSE gradually becomes thicker as the star evolves towards the end of the AGB. The mass loss decreases substantially as the star leaves the AGB and the CSE detaches itself from the star. Eventually, the central post-AGB object becomes hot enough to ionize the inner regions of the remnant AGB–CSE and a planetary nebula (PN) forms. Thus, the AGB–CSE provides a common link through this evolutionary sequence, and hopefully much can be learnt about the late stages of stellar evolution as well as the metal enrichment of the interstellar medium through the study of its properties. Unfortunately, space does not permit a discussion of CSEs around supergiants (see e.g. Knapp & Woodhams 1993).

Introduction

Circumstellar interaction has turned out to be of crucial importance for the interpretation of observations of supernovae at both early and late stages. Much of the progress in this field is a result, of the combination of radio, optical, UV and X-ray observations. Here I review the basic evidence for circumstellar interaction, some of the most important physical processes, and specific examples at both early and late, stages in the supernova evolution. For a complementary review see especially the excellent review by Chevalier (1990).

Observational evidence for circumstellar interaction

The first evidence that circumstellar interaction is important for supernovae came from observations of SN 1979C. UV observations during the first few weeks showed a number of emission lines, interpreted as a result of circumstellar interaction (§4.3). Unambiguous evidence for circumstellar interaction came from radio observations more than a year later, showing a wavelength-dependent turn-on of the radio emission (Sramek & Weiler 1990; Van Dyk, this volume). Emission was first seen at short wavelengths, and later at longer. This behavior is interpreted as a result of decreasing free-free absorption by the ionized gas in a circumstellar medium around the supernova (Chevalier 1982b).

Introduction

The ring nebulae that are observed around Luminous Blue Variables (LBVs) and Wolf-Rayet (WR) stars are examples of circumstellar media in the late stages of stellar evolution of hot, massive stars. These nebulae are excellent laboratories for studying the interaction of winds and ejecta with the interstellar medium (ISM). They also provide unique insights into the central stars, particularly from an evolutionary point, of view. In Sect. 2, LBVs and WR stars are introduced, and Sect. 3 discusses the formation and composition of their nebulae. Sect.

Introduction

Over the last decade, we have come to realize that mass loss on the asymptotic giant branch (AGB) has major effects on the formation of planetary nebulae (PN), and many observable characteristics (e.g. haloes, molecular envelopes) of PN can be traced back to the circumstellar envelopes of their AGB progenitors (Kwok 1982). The large infrared excesses observed in PN are certainly due to the remnant of the AGB envelopes which have cooled as the result of expansion (Kwok 1990, Zhang & Kwok 1991). The detections of the 9.7 µm silicate and the 11.3 µm SiC features, both commonly observed in AGB stars, provide confirmations to this link between AGB and PN (Aitken & Roche 1982, Zhang & Kwok 1990).

However, the infrared spectra of PN also show features not found in AGB stars. The most prominent are the family of features at 3.3, 6.2, 7.7, 8.6, and 11.3 µm, which are attributed to the PAH molecule (Allamandola et al. 1989). It is clear that these molecules must either be synthesized during the transition from the AGB to the PN phase, or they are produced in the AGB atmosphere but only excited in the PN environment. In either case, it would be useful to study the infrared spectra of young PN and transition objects between AGB and PN (or proto-PN) in order to understand the origin of the PAH features.

Analytical beginnings

Balick (1987, 1988) suggested that the interacting-winds model for planetary nebulae, if generalized to two dimensions, might explain the morphologies of nearly all PNs. He supposed that the fossil red giant envelope (RGE) is cylindrically symmetric and that the density is higher at the equator than at the poles. The PN morphology and its evolution is then purely a consequence of the mass distribution in the RGE and the properties of the fast stellar wind.

Analytical models for aspherical PNs have been quite successful in describing the propagation of the outer shock of a two-wind configuration. One uses either a snowplow-type approximation (Kahn & West 1985, Soker & Livio 1989) or a generalization of the work of Kompaneets (1960; Balick et al. 1987, Icke 1988, Icke et al. 1989), in which the wind is supposed to generate a uniform pressure inside the expanding bubble. The method is easy to apply and shows the generic features of the outer shocks clearly. It works as follows.