Hostname: page-component-cd4964975-pf4mj Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2023-03-29T13:27:09.356Z Has data issue: true Feature Flags: { "useRatesEcommerce": false } hasContentIssue true
  • English

How to learn about teaching: An evolutionary framework for the study of teaching behavior in humans and other animals

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 May 2014

Michelle Ann Kline
Michelle Ann Kline*
Affiliation:
Institute of Human Origins, School of Human Evolution and Social Change, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287. michelle.ann.kline@gmail.commichellekline.abcs.asu.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions[Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The human species is more reliant on cultural adaptation than any other species, but it is unclear how observational learning can give rise to the faithful transmission of cultural adaptations. One possibility is that teaching facilitates accurate social transmission by narrowing the range of inferences that learners make. However, there is wide disagreement about how to define teaching, and how to interpret the empirical evidence for teaching across cultures and species. In this article I argue that disputes about the nature and prevalence of teaching across human societies and nonhuman animals are based on a number of deep-rooted theoretical differences between fields, as well as on important differences in how teaching is defined. To reconcile these disparate bodies of research, I review the three major approaches to the study of teaching – mentalistic, culture-based, and functionalist – and outline the research questions about teaching that each addresses. I then argue for a new, integrated framework that differentiates between teaching types according to the specific adaptive problems that each type solves, and apply this framework to restructure current empirical evidence on teaching in humans and nonhuman animals. This integrative framework generates novel insights, with broad implications for the study of the evolution of teaching, including the roles of cognitive constraints and cooperative dilemmas in how and when teaching evolves. Finally, I propose an explanation for why some types of teaching are uniquely human, and discuss new directions for research motivated by this framework.

Keywords

Cooperationcultural transmissionevolutionteachingpedagogytheory of mind
Type
Target Article
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 38 , 2015 , e31
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2015 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adams, M. J., Treiman, R. & Pressley, M. (1998) Reading, writing, and literacy. In: Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 4. Child psychology in practice, ed. Damon, W., Sigel, I. & Renninger, K., pp. 275–355. Wiley.Google Scholar
Akhtar, N. & Gernsbacher, M. A. (2008) On privileging the role of gaze in infant social cognition. Child Development Perspectives 2:59–65.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Basso, K. H. (1972) Ice and travel among the Fort Norman Slave: Folk taxonomies and cultural rules. Language in Society 1(1):31–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bender, C., Herzing, D. & Bjorklund, D. (2009) Evidence of teaching in atlantic spotted dolphins (Stenella frontalis) by mother dolphins foraging in the presence of their calves. Animal Cognition 12:43–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Birch, S., Vauthier, S. & Bloom, P. (2008) Three-and four-year-olds spontaneously use others' past performance to guide their learning. Cognition 107:1018–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bird, D. W. & Bliege-Bird, R. (2002) Children on the Reef: Slow learning or strategic foraging? Human Nature 13:269–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bliege-Bird, R. & Bird, D. W. (2002) Constraints of knowing or constraints of growing?: Fishing and collecting by the children of Mer. Human Nature 13:239–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bloom, P. & German, T. P. (2000) Two reasons to abandon the false belief task as a test of theory of mind. Cognition 77(1):B25–B31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blurton Jones, N. G. (1967) An ethological study of some aspects of social behaviour of children in nursery school. In: Primate ethology, ed. Morris, D., pp. 347–68. Weidenfeld and Nicolson.Google Scholar
Bock, J. (2002) Learning, life history, and productivity: Children's lives in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. Human Nature 12:161–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boesch, C. (1991) Teaching among wild chimpanzees. Animal Behaviour 41(3):530–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boyd, R. & Richerson, P. J. (1985) Culture and the evolutionary process. University of Chicago.Google Scholar
Boyd, R. & Richerson, P. J. (1988) An evolutionary model of social learning: The effects of spatial and temporal variation. In: Social learning: A psychological and biological approach, ed. Zentall, T. & Galef, B. G., pp. 29–48. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Boyd, R. & Richerson, P. J. (1995) Why does culture increase human adaptability? Ethology and Sociobiology 16(2):125–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boyd, R. & Richerson, P. J. (1996) Why culture is common but cultural evolution is rare. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 108:10918–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boyd, R., Richerson, P. J. & Henrich, J. (2011) The cultural niche: Why social learning is essential for human adaptation. [Colloquium Paper]. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA 108(Suppl. 2):10918–25. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1100290108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boyer, P. (1998) Cognitive tracks of cultural inheritance: How evolved intuitive ontology governs cultural transmission. American Anthropologist 100:876–89. doi: 10.1525/aa.1998.100.4.876.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brand, R. J., Baldwin, D. A. & Ashburn, L. A. (2002) Evidence for “motionese”: Modifications in mothers' infant-directed action. Developmental Science 5:72–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Briggs, J. (1998) Inuit morality play: The emotional education of a three-year-old. Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Bryant, G. A. & Barrett, H. C. (2007) Recognizing intentions in infant-directed speech: Evidence for universals. Psychological Science 18(8):746–51. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01970.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buchsbaum, D., Gopnik, A., Griffiths, T. L. & Shafto, P. (2011) Children's imitation of causal action sequences is influenced by statistical and pedagogical evidence. Cognition 120(3):331–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burkart, J. M. & van Schaik, C. P. (2010) Cognitive consequences of cooperative breeding in primates? Animal Cognition 13(1):1–19. doi:10.1007/s10071-009-0263-7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Byrne, R. W. & Rapaport, L. G. (2011) What are we learning from teaching? Animal Behaviour 82:1207–11. doi: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2011.08.018.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caldwell, C. & Millen, A. (2009) Social learning mechanisms and cumulative cultural evolution: Is imitation necessary? Psychological Science 20(12):1478–83. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02469.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caldwell, C. & Whiten, A. (2002) Evolutionary perspectives on imitation: Is a comparative psychology of social learning possible? Animal Cognition 5(4):193–208.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Call, J. & Tomasello, M. (2008) Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind? 30 years later. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 12(5):187–192.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carey, S. (2000) Science education as conceptual change. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 21:13–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caro, T. M. (1980) Predatory behaviour in domestic cat mothers. Behaviour 74:128–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caro, T. M. & Hauser, M. D. (1992) Is there teaching in nonhuman animals? The Quarterly Review of Biology 67(2):151–74. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/2831436 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Castro, L. & Toro, M. A. (2014) Cumulative cultural evolution: The role of teaching. Journal of Theoretical Biology 347(C):74–83. doi:10.1016/j.jtbi.2014.01.006.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cazden, C. & John, V. P. (1971) Learning in American Indian children. In: Anthropological perspectives on education, ed. Wax, M. L., Diamond, S. & Gearing, F. O.. pp. 252–72. Basic Books.Google Scholar
Chudek, M., Heller, S., Birch, S. & Henrich, J. (2011) Prestige-biased cultural learning: Bystander's differential attention to potential models influences children's learning. Evolution and Human Behavior 33(1):46–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Corriveau, K. & Harris, P. (2009) Choosing your informant: Weighing familiarity and recent accuracy. Developmental Science 12:426–37.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Corriveau, K., Harris, P., Meins, E., Ferneyhough, C., Arnott, B., Elliot, L., Liddle, B., Hearn, A., Vittorini, L. & de Rosnay, M. (2009) Young children's trust in their mothers' claims: Longitudinal links with attachment security in infancy. Child Development 80:750–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coy, M. W., ed. (1989) Apprenticeship: From theory to method and back again. SUNY Press.Google Scholar
Csibra, G. (2007) Teachers in the wild. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 11:95–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Csibra, G. & Gergely, G. (2006) Social learning and social cognition: The case for pedagogy. In: Attention and Performance XX1: Processes of change in brain and cognitive development, ed. Munakata, Y. & Johnson, M. H., pp. 249–274. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Csibra, G. & Gergely, G. (2009) Natural pedagogy. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 13(4):148–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Csibra, G. & Gergely, G. (2011) Natural pedagogy as evolutionary adaptation. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 366(1567):1149–57. doi:10.1098/rstb.2010.0319.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davis-Unger, A. C. & Carlson, S. M. (2008) Development of teaching skills and relations to theory of mind in preschoolers. Journal of Cognition and Development 9:26–45. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15248370701836584.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dawkins, R. (1982) The extended phenotype. Freeman Press.Google Scholar
Dean, L. G., Kendal, R. L., Schapiro, S. J., Thierry, B. & Laland, K. N. (2012) Identification of the social and cognitive processes underlying human cumulative culture. Science 335(6072):1114–18. doi:10.1126/science.1213969.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dewar, G. (2002) The cue reliability approach to social transmission: How animals use social and nonsocial cues to identify safe, new options. Doctoral dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Michigan.Google Scholar
Enquist, M. & Ghirlanda, S. (2007) Evolution of social learning does not explain the origin of human cumulative culture. Journal of Theoretical Biology 246(1):129–35. doi:10.1016/j.jtbi.2006.12.022.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ewer, R. F. (1969) The instinct to teach. Nature 222:698.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fairbanks, L. (1975) Communication of food quality in captive Macaca nemestrina and free-ranging Ateles geoffroyi. Primates 16:181–90.Google Scholar
Fernald, A. & Mazzie, C. (1991) Prosody and focus in speech to infants and adults. Developmental Psychology 27:209–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fogarty, L., Strimling, P. & Laland, K. N. (2011) The evolution of teaching. Evolution 65(10):2760–70. doi:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2011.01370.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fragaszy, D. M. & Perry, S. (2003) The biology of traditions: Models and evidence. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Franks, N. & Richardson, T. (2006) Teaching in tandem-running ants. Nature 439(7073):153.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Galef, B. G. (1995) Why behaviour patterns that animals learn socially are locally adaptive. Animal Behaviour 49(5):1325–34. doi:10.1006/anbe.1995.0164.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gaskins, S. & Paradise, R. (2010) Learning through observation in daily life. In: The anthropology of learning in childhood, ed. Lancy, D. F., Bock, J. & Gaskins, S., pp. 85–117. AltaMira Press.Google Scholar
Geertz, C. (1961) The Javanese family: A study of kinship and socialization. Free Press.Google Scholar
Gergely, G., Egyed, K. & Király, I. (2007) On pedagogy. Developmental Science 10(1):139–46. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2007.00576.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Giraldeau, L. A., Valone, T. J. & Templeton, J. J. (2002) Potential disadvantages of using socially acquired information. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B: Biological Sciences 357(1427):1559–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gottlieb, A. (2004) The afterlife is where we come from. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Gourgey, A. (1998) Metacognition in basic skills instruction. Instructional Science 26:81–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guberman, S. R. & Greenfield, P. M. (1991) Learning and transfer in everyday cognition. Cognitive Development 6:233–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hamilton, W. D. (1964) The genetical evolution of social behaviour. II. Journal of Theoretical Biology 7(1):17–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Henrich, J. (2009) The evolution of costly displays, cooperation and religion: Credibility enhancing displays and their implications for cultural evolution. Evolution and Human Behavior 30:244–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henrich, J. & Boyd, R. (1998) The evolution of conformist transmission and the emergence of between-group differences. Evolution and Human Behavior 19:215–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henrich, J. & Boyd, R. (2002) On modeling cognition and culture. Journal of Cognition and Culture 2(2):87–112.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henrich, J., Boyd, R. & Richerson, P. J. (2008) Five misunderstandings about cultural evolution. Human Nature 19(2):119–37.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Henrich, J. & Gil-White, F. J. (2001) The evolution of prestige: Freely conferred deference as a mechanisms for enhancing the benefits of cultural transmission. Evolution and Human Behavior 22:165–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henrich, J. & McElreath, R. (2003) The evolution of cultural evolution. Evolutionary Anthropology Issues News and Reviews 12(3):123–35. doi:10.1002/(ISSN)1520-6505.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hess, N. & Hagen, E. (2006) Psychological adaptations for assessing gossip veracity. Human Nature 17:337–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hewlett, B. S., Fouts, H. N., Boyette, A. H. & Hewlett, B. L. (2011) Social learning among Congo Basin hunter-gatherers. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 366:1168–78. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2010.0373.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heyes, C. M. (1994) Social learning in animals: Categories and mechanisms. Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 69(2):207–231.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heyes, C. M. & Galef, B. G. Jr., eds. (1996) Social learning in animals: The roots of culture. Elsevier.Google Scholar
Hikami, K., Hasegawa, Y. & Matsuzawa, T. (1990) Social transmission of food preferences in Japanese monkeys (Macaca fuscata) after mere exposure or aversion training. Journal of Comparative Psychology 104:233–37.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hill, K., Barton, M. & Hurtado, A. M. (2009) The emergence of human uniqueness: Characters underlying behavioral modernity. Evolutionary Anthropology Issues News and Reviews 18(5):187–200. doi:10.1002/evan.20224.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hocart, A. M. (1929) Lau Islands, Fiji. Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu.Google Scholar
Hogbin, H. I. (1970) A New Guinea childhood: From weaning till the eighth year in Wogeo. In: From child to adult, ed. Middleton, J., pp. 124–62. The Natural History Press.Google Scholar
Hoppitt, W. J. E., Brown, G. R., Kendal, R., Rendell, L., Thornton, A., Webster, M. M. & Laland, K. N. (2008) Lessons from animal teaching. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 23(9):486–93. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2008.05.008.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hrdy, S. (2008) Evolutionary context of human development: The cooperative breeding model. In: Family relationships: An evolutionary perspective, ed. Salmon, C. & Kennedy, T.. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Iverson, J. M., Capirci, O., Longobardi, E. & Cristina Caselli, M. (1999) Gesturing in mother-child interactions. Cognitive Development 14(1):57–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kamakau, S. M. (1976) The works of the people of old: Na hana a ka po'e kahiko. Bishop Museum Press.Google Scholar
Karmiloff-Smith, A. (1985) From meta-processes to conscious access: Evidence from children's metalinguistic and repair data. Cognition 23:95–147.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kirch, P. V. (2002) On the road of the winds – An archaeological history of the Pacific Islands before European contact. University of California Press.Google Scholar
Kline, M. A. (2013) Cultural transmission in the real world: A quantitative study of teaching an cultural learning in the Yasawa Islands, Fiji. Doctoral dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of California Los Angeles. Available at: http://escholarship.org/uc/item/9px971xt Google Scholar
Kline, M. A., Boyd, R. & Henrich, J. (2013) Teaching and the life history of cultural transmission in Fijian villages. Human Nature 24(4):351–74. doi: 10.1007/s12110-013-9180-1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Koenig, M., Clement, F. & Harris, P. (2004) Trust in testimony. Psychological Science 15:694–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Koenig, M. & Harris, P. (2005) Preschoolers mistrust ignorant and inaccurate speakers. Child Development 76:1261–77.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kruger, A. C. & Tomasello, M. (1996) Cultural learning and learning culture. In: Handbook of education and human development: New models of learning, teaching, and schooling, ed. Olson, D. R. & Torrance, N., pp. 369–87. Blackwell.Google Scholar
Kruuk, H. & Turner, M. (1967) Comparative notes on predation by lion, leopard, cheetah and wild dog in the Serengeti area, East Africa. Mammalia 31:1–127.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laguna, F. (1965) Childhood among the Yakutat Tlingit. In: Context and meaning in cultural anthropology, ed. Spiro, M., pp. 3–23. Free Press.Google Scholar
Lancy, D. F. (2007) Accounting for variability in mother-child play. American Anthropologist 109:273–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lancy, D. F. (2008) The anthropology of childhood. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Lancy, D. F. (2010) Learning “from nobody”: The limited role of teaching in folk models of children's development. Childhood in the Past 3(1):79–106. Available at: http://www.maneyonline.com/doi/abs/10.1179/cip.2010.3.1.79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lancy, D. F. & Grove, M. A. (2010) The role of adults in children's learning. In: The anthropology of learning in childhood, ed. Lancy, D. F., Bock, J. & Gaskins, S., pp. 145–80. AltaMira Press.Google Scholar
Lave, J. & Wenger, E. (1991) Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, D. (1967) A social-anthropological view of independent learning. In: The theory and nature of independent learning, ed. Gleason, G. T., pp. 51–63. International Textbook.Google Scholar
Levy, R. I. (1996) Essential contrasts: Differences in parental ideas about learners and teaching in Tahiti and Nepal. In: Parents' cultural belief systems: Their origins, expressions, and consequences, ed. Harkness, S. & Super, C. M., pp. 123–42. Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Liers, E. E. (1951) Notes on the river otter (Lutra canadensis). Journal of Mammalogy 32:1–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lopez, J. C. & Lopez, D. (1985) Killer whales of Patagonia and the behavior of intentional stranding while hunting nearshore. Journal of Mammology 66:181–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Macdonald, K. (2007) Cross-cultural comparison of learning in human hunting. Human Nature 18:386–402.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maestripieri, D. (1995) First steps in the macaque world: Do rhesus mothers encourage their infants' independent locomotion? Animal Behaviour 49(6):1541–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maestripieri, D. (1996) Maternal encouragement of infant locomotion in pigtail macaques, Macaca nemestrina. Animal Behaviour 51(3):603–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Masataka, N., Koda, H., Urasopon, N. & Watanabe, K. (2009) Free-ranging macaque mothers exaggerate tool-using behavior when observed by offspring. PLoS ONE 4(3):e4768. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0004768.g002.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mascaro, O. & Sperber, D. (2009) The moral, epistemic, and mindreading components of children's vigilance towards deception. Cognition 112(3):367–80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maynard, A. (2004) Cultures of teaching in childhood: Formal schooling and Maya sibling teaching at home. Cognitive Development 19(4):517–535.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McPhee, C. (1969) Children and music in Bali. In: Children in contemporary cultures, ed. Mead, M. & Wolfenstein, M., pp. 70–98. Chicago University Press.Google Scholar
Mead, M. (1970) Our educational emphases in primitive perspective. In: From child to adult: Studies in the anthropology of education, vol. 12, ed. Middleton, J.. The Natural History Press.Google Scholar
Nettle, D., Panchanathan, K., Rai, T. S. & Fiske, A. P. (2011) The evolution of giving, sharing, and lotteries. Current Anthropology 52(5):747–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nicol, C. & Pope, S. (1996) The maternal feeding display of domestic hens is sensitive to perceived chick error. Animal Behaviour 52(4):767–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nurmsoo, E. & Robinson, E. (2009) Children's trust in previously inaccurate informants who were well or poorly informed: When past errors can be excused. Child Development 80:23–27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olson, D. R. & Bruner, J. S. (1996) Folk psychology and folk pedagogy. In: Handbook of education and human development: New models of learning, teaching and schooling, ed. Olson, D. R. & Torrance, N., pp. 9–27. Blackwell.Google Scholar
Paradise, R. & Rogoff, B. (2009) Side by side: Learning through observing and pitching in. Ethos 37(1):102–38. doi: 10.1111/j.1548-1352.2009.01033.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pearson, A. (1989) The teacher: Theory and practice in teacher education. Routledge.Google Scholar
Pelissier, C. (1991) The anthropology of teaching and learning. Annual Review of Anthropology 20:75–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Penn, D. C. & Povinelli, D. J. (2007) On the lack of evidence that non-human animals possess anything remotely resembling a “theory of mind”. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, B: Biological Sciences 362(1480):731–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perreault, C. (2012) The pace of cultural evolution. PLoS ONE 7:e45150.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pettitt, G. A. (1946) Primitive education in North America. University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 43. University of California Press.Google Scholar
Premack, D. & Premack, A. (2004) Education for the prepared mind. Cognitive Development 19:537–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raihani, N. J. & Ridley, A. R. (2007) Variable postfledging care in a cooperative bird: Causes and consequences. Behavioral Ecology 18(6):994–1000.Google Scholar
Raihani, N. & Ridley, A. R. (2008) Experimental evidence for teaching in wild pied babblers. Animal Behaviour 75(1):3–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rapaport, L. G. & Ruiz-Miranda, C. R. (2002) Tutoring in wild Golden Lion tamarins. International Journal of Primatology 23:1063–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reibold, M., Paufler, P., Levin, A. A., Kochmann, W., Pätzke, N. & Meyer, D. C. (2006) Materials: Carbon nanotubes in an ancient Damascus sabre. Nature 444(7117):286. doi:10.1038/444286a.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reichard, G. (1934) Spider Woman. A story of Navaho weavers and chanters. Macmillan.Google Scholar
Rendell, L. & Whitehead, H. (2001) Culture in whales and dolphins. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 24:309–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Richardson, T. O., Sleeman, P. A., McNamara, J. M., Houston, A. I. & Franks, N. R. (2007) Teaching with evaluation in ants. Current Biology 17(17):1520–26. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2007.08.032.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ritchie, J. B. & Ritchie, J. E. (1979) Growing up in Polynesia. Littlehampton Book Services.Google Scholar
Roberts, G. (2005) Cooperation through interdependence. Animal Behaviour 70(4):901–908.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rogers, A. R. (1988) Does biology constrain culture. American Anthropologist 90(4):819–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rogoff, B., Paradise, R., Arauz, R. M., Correa-Chávez, M. & Angelillo, C. (2003) Firsthand learning through intent participation. Annual Review of Psychology 54:175–203.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sabbagh, M. A. & Baldwin, D. A. (2001) Learning words from knowledgeable versus ignorant speakers: Links between preschoolers' theory of mind and semantic development. Child Development 72(4):1054–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schaller, G. B. (1967) The deer and the tiger. Chicago University Press.Google Scholar
Schusterman, R. J., Thomas, J. A. & Wood, F. G., eds. (2013) Dolphin cognition and behavior: A comparative approach. Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Skerry, A. E., Lambert, E., Powell, L. J. & McAuliffe, K. (2013) The origins of pedagogy: Developmental and evolutionary perspectives. Evolutionary Psychology 11(3):500–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, J. E., Swanson, E. M., Reed, D. & Holekamp, K. E. (2012) Evolution of cooperation among mammalian carnivores and its relevance to hominin evolution. Current Anthropology 53:S436–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, V. A., King, A. P. & West, M. J. (2000) A role of her own: Female cowbirds, Molothrus ater, influence the development and outcome of song learning. Animal Behaviour 60(5):599–609. doi:10.1006/anbe.2000.1531.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Snow, C. (1995) Issues in the study of input: Finetuning, universality, individual and developmental differences, and necessary causes. In: The handbook of child language, ed. Fletcher, P. & MacWhinney, B., pp. 180–93. Basil Blackwell.Google Scholar
Sperber, D. (2000) Metarepresentations in an evolutionary perspective. In: Metarepresentation: A multidisciplinary perspective, ed. Sperber, D., pp. 117–37. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Sperber, D., Clément, F., Heintz, C., Mascaro, O., Mercier, H., Origgi, G. & Wilson, D. (2010) Epistemic vigilance. Mind and Language 25(4):359–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sperber, D. & Wilson, D. (1995) Relevance: Communication and cognition, 2nd edition. Blackwell.Google Scholar
Spindler, G. & Spindler, L. (1989) There are no dropouts among the Arunta and the Hutterites. In: What do Anthropologists have to say about dropouts?, ed. Trueba, H. T., Spindler, G., & Spindler, L., pp. 7–15. Falmer Press.Google Scholar
Strauss, S., Ziv, M. & Stein, A. (2002) Teaching as a natural cognition and its relations to preschoolers' developing theory of mind. Cognitive Development 17:1473–87. doi: 10.1016/S0885-2014(02)00128-4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tanon, F. (1994) A cultural view on planning: The case of weaving in Ivory Coast. Tilburg University Press.Google Scholar
Taylor, P. (1992) Altruism in viscous populations: An inclusive fitness model. Evolutionary Ecology 6:352–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tennie, C., Call, J. & Tomasello, M. (2009) Ratcheting up the ratchet: On the evolution of cumulative culture. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 364(1528):2405–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thornton, A. & McAuliffe, K. (2006) Teaching in wild meerkats. Science 313(5784):227–29.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thornton, A. & McAuliffe, K. (2012) Teaching can teach us a lot. Animal Behaviour 83(4):e6–e9. doi:10.1126/science.1128727.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thornton, A. & Raihani, N. (2008) The evolution of teaching. Animal Behaviour 75(6):1823–36. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2007.12.014 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thornton, A. & Raihani, N. J. (2010) Identifying teaching in wild animals. Learning and Behavior 38(3):297–309.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thornton, A., Raihani, N. J. & Radford, A. N. (2007) Teachers in the wild: Some clarification. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 11:272–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tomasello, M. (1999) The human adaptation for culture. Annual Review of Anthropology 28:509.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tomasello, M., Carpenter, M. & Call, J. (2005) Understanding sharing intentions: The origins of cultural cognition. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 28:675–735.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tomasello, M., Kruger, A. C. & Ratner, H. H. (1993) Cultural learning. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 16:495–552.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tomasello, M., Melis, A. P., Tennie, C., Wyman, E. & Herrmann, E. (2012) Two key steps in the evolution of human cooperation. Current Anthropology 53(6):673–692.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Schaik, C. P. & Burkart, J. M. (2010) Mind the gap: Cooperative breeding and the evolution of our unique features. In: Mind the gap: Tracing the origins of human universals, ed. Kappeler, P. M. & Silk, J. B., pp. 477–96. Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978) Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Wellman, H. M. & Lagattuta, K. H. (2004) Theory of mind for learning and teaching: The nature and role of explanation. Cognitive Development 19:479–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whiten, A. (2011) The scope of culture in chimpanzees, humans and ancestral apes. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 366(1567):997–1007. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.12.010.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whiten, A. & Erdal, D. (2012) The human socio-cognitive niche and its evolutionary origins. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 367(1599):2119–29. doi:10.1098/rstb.2012.0114.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilbert, J. (1976) To become a maker of canoes: An essay in Warao enculturation. UCLA Latin American Studies Series and Latin American Studies Los Angeles, California 37:303–58.Google Scholar
Ziv, M. & Frye, D. (2004) Children's understanding of teaching: The role of knowledge and belief. Cognitive Development 19:457–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar