Hostname: page-component-89b8bd64d-n8gtw Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2026-05-07T02:01:55.247Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Visual Attention in Crisis

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  03 May 2024

Ruth Rosenholtz Open the ORCID record for Ruth Rosenholtz [Opens in a new window]
Ruth Rosenholtz*
Affiliation:
Department of Brain & Cognitive Sciences, CSAIL, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA rruth@mit.edu
*
Corresponding author: Ruth Rosenholtz; Email: rruth@mit.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Short abstract

Recent research on peripheral vision has led to a paradigm-shifting conclusion: vision science as a field must rethink visual attention. This article reviews the evidence for a crisis in attention science and examines supposedly attentional phenomena to ask which point to additional capacity limits. Based on the resulting list of critical phenomena, and what they have in common, I propose an alternative way to think about capacity limits and the underlying mechanisms.

Keywords

attentioncapacity limitscomplexityperipheral visionselection

Information

Type
Target Article
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 48 , 2025 , e130
Check for updates
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2024. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Al-Janabi, S., & Greenberg, A. S. (2016). Target-object integration, attention distribution, and object orientation interactively modulate object-based selection. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 78(7), 1968–1984.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alvarez, G. A., & Franconeri, S. L. (2007). How many objects can you track?: Evidence for a resource-limited attentive tracking mechanism. Journal of Vision, 7(13), 14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderson, B. (2011). There is no such thing as attention. Frontiers in Psychology, 2, 246.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anton-Erxleben, K. A., Henrich, C., & Treue, S. (2007). Attention changes perceived size of moving visual patterns. Journal of Vision, 7(11), 5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ariely, D. (2001). Seeing sets: Representation by statistical properties. Psychological Science, 12(2), 157–162.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bacon, F. (2015). The New Organon. Centaur Editions. Retrieved from https://www.amazon.com/New-Organon-Francis-Bacon-ebook/dp/B018KZF722/ref=sr_1_1?crid=19NE8BW2RM3CA&keywords=new+organon&qid=1703640282&sprefix=alexa+robot%2Caps%2C89&sr=8-1 Google Scholar
Balas, B. J. (2016). Seeing number using texture: How summary statistics account for reductions in perceived numerosity in the visual periphery. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 78(8), 2313–2319.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Balas, B. J., Nakano, L., & Rosenholtz, R. (2009). A summary-statistic representation in peripheral vision explains visual crowding. Journal of Vision, 8(12), 13. doi: 10.1167/9.12.13 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bouma, H. (1970). Interactional effects in parafoveal letter recognition. Nature, 226, 177–178.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Braun, J., & Julesz, B. (1998). Withdrawing attention at little or no cost: Detection and discrimination tasks. Perception & Psychophysics, 60(1), 1–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carrasco, M. (2011). Visual attention: the past 25 years. Vision Research, 51(13), 1484–1525.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chaney, W., Fischer, J., & Whitney, D. (2014). The hierarchical sparse selection model of visual crowding. Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience, 8(73), 1–11. doi: 10.3389/fnint.2014.00073 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chang, H., & Rosenholtz, R. (2016). Search performance is better predicted by tileability than by the presence of a unique basic feature. Journal of Vision, 16(10), 13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, N., Shin, K., Millin, R., Song, Y., Kwon, M., & Tjan, B. S. (2019). Cortical reorganization of peripheral vision induced by simulated central vision loss. Journal of Neuroscience, 39(18), 3529–3536.Google ScholarPubMed
Chen, Z., & Cave, K. R. (2019). When is object-based attention not based on objects? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 45(8), 1062–1082.Google Scholar
Chen, Z., Cave, K. R., Basu, D., Suresh, S., & Wiltshire, J. (2020). A region complexity effect masquerading as object-based attention. Journal of Vision, 20(7), 24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chong, S.-C., & Treisman, A. (2003). Representation of statistical properties. Vision Research, 43(4), 393–404.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chong, S.-C., & Treisman, A. (2005). Attentional spread in the statistical processing of visual displays. Perception & Psychophysics, 66, 1282–1294.Google Scholar
Chun, M. M., Golumb, J. D., & Turk-Browne, N. B. (2011). A taxonomy of external and internal attention. Annual Review of Psychology, 62, 73–101.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, A., & Ivry, R. (1989). Illusory conjunctions inside and outside the focus of attention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 15(4), 650–663.Google ScholarPubMed
Cohen, M. A., Alvarez, G. A., & Nakayama, K. (2011). Natural-scene perception requires attention. Psych. Science, 22(9), 1165–1172.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, M. A., Dennett, D. C., & Kanwisher, N. (2016). What is the bandwidth of perceptual experience? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20(5), 324–335.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davis, E. T., Kramer, P., & Graham, N. (1983). Uncertainty about spatial frequency, spatial position, or contrast of visual patterns. Perception and Psychophysics, 33(1), 20–28.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Desimone, R., & Duncan, J. (1995). Neural mechanisms of selective visual attention. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 18, 193–222.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Deutsch, J. A., & Deutsch, D. (1963). Attention: Some theoretical considerations. Psychological Review, 70, 80–90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Egly, R., Driver, J., & Rafal, R. D. (1994). Shifting visual attention between objects and locations: Evidence from normal and parietal lesion subjects. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 123(2), 161–177.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ehinger, K. A., & Rosenholtz, R. (2016). A general account of peripheral encoding also predicts scene perception performance. Journal of Vision, 16(2), 13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ellis, S. R., & Stark, L. (1978). Eye movements during the viewing of Necker cubes. Perception, 7, 575–581.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eriksen, C. W., & Lappin, J. S. (1967). Selective attention and very short-term recognition memory for nonsense forms. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 73(3), 358–364.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eriksen, C. W., & Rohrbaugh, J. (1970). Visual masking in multielement displays. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 83(1, pt. 1), 147–154.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eriksen, C. W., & Webb, J. M. (1989). Shifting of attentional focus within and about a visual display. Perception & Psychophysics, 45(2), 175–183.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Folk, C. L., Remington, R. W., & Johnston, J. C. (1992). Involuntary covert orienting is contingent on attentional control settings. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Perception & Performance, 18(4), 1030–1044.Google ScholarPubMed
Fortenbaugh, F. C., Prinzmetal, W., & Robertson, L. C. (2011). Rapid changes in visual-spatial attention distort object shape. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 18, 287–294.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fougnie, D., Cockhren, J., & Marois, R. (2018). A common source of attention for auditory and visual tracking. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 80, 1571–1583.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Francis, G., & Thunell, E. (2022). Excess success in articles on object-based attention. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 84, 700–714.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Franconeri, S. L., Alvarez, G. A., & Cavanagh, P. (2013). Flexible cognitive resources: Competitive content maps for attention and memory. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 17(3), 134–141.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Freeman, J., & Simoncelli, E. P. (2011). Metamers of the ventral stream. Nature Neuroscience, 14(9), 1195–1201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Freeman, J., Ziemba, C. M., Heeger, D. J., Simoncelli, E. P., & Movshon, J. A. (2013). A functional and perceptual signature of the second visual area in primates. Nature Neuroscience, 16, 974–981.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gaspar, J. G., Ward, N., Neider, M. B., Crowell, J., Carbonari, R., Kaczmarski, H., … Loschky, L. C. (2016). Measuring the Useful Field of View during simulated driving with gaze-contingent displays. Human Factors, 58(4), 630–641.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gingerich, O. (1975). ’Crisis’ versus aesthetic in the Copernican Revolution. In Beer, A. (Ed.), Vistas in Astronomy (Vol. 17, pp. 85–94). Oxford: Pergamon.Google Scholar
Gobell, J. L., Tseng, C.-H., & Sperling, G. (2004). The spatial distribution of visual attention. Vision Research, 44(12), 1273–1296.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greene, M. R., & Oliva, A. (2009). Recognition of natural scenes from global properties: Seeing the forest without representing the trees. Cognitive Psychology, 58(2), 137–176.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grindley, G. C., & Townsend, V. (1968). Voluntary attention in peripheral vision and its effects on acuity and differential thresholds. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 20(1), 11–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haberman, J., & Whitney, D. (2009). Seeing the mean: Ensemble coding for sets of faces. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance, 35(3), 718–734.Google ScholarPubMed
Heliocentrism. (2023, December 19). Retrieved from Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliocentrism CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hommel, B., Chapman, C. S., Cisek, P., Neyedli, H. F., Song, J.-H., & Welsh, T. N. (2019). No one knows what attention is. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 81, 2288–2303.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Houtkamp, R., Spekreijse, H., & Roelfsema, P. R. (2003). A gradual spread of attention during mental curve tracing. Perception & Psychophysics, 65(7), 1136–1144.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Huang, L., & Pashler, H. (2007). A Boolean map theory of visual attention. Psychological Review, 114(3), 599–631.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Huang, L., & Pashler, H. (2009). Reversing the attention effect in figure-ground perception. Psychological Science, 20(10), 1199–1201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Huestegge, L., & Bröcker, A. (2016). Out of the corner of the driver’s eye: Peripheral processing of hazards in static traffic scenes. Journal of Vision, 16(2), 11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hyman, I. E., Boss, S. M., Wise, B. M., McKenzie, K. E., & Caggiano, J. M. (2010). Did you see the unicycling clown? Inattentional blindness while walking and talking on a cell phone. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 24(5), 597–607.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hyman, I. E., Sarb, B. A., & Wise-Swanson, B. M. (2014). Failure to see money on a tree: inattentional blindness for objects that guided behavior. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 356.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Intriligator, J., & Cavanagh, P. (2001). The spatial resolution of visual attention. Cogn. Psychol., 43, 171–216.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
James, W. (1890). Principles of Psychology. New York: Holt.Google Scholar
Jolicoeur, P., & Ingleton, M. (1991). Size invariance in curve tracing. Memory & Cognition, 19, 21–36.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jolicoeur, P., Ullman, S., & Mackay, M. (1986). Curve tracing: A possible basic operation in the perception of spatial relations. Memory & Cognition, 14(2), 129–140.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jolicoeur, P., Ullman, S., & Mackay, M. (1991). Visual curve tracing properties. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 17(4), 997–1022. doi: 10.1037/0096-1523.17.4.997 Google ScholarPubMed
Joseph, J. S., Chun, M. M., & Nakayama, K. (1997). Attentional requirements in a ’preattentive’ feature search task. Nature, 387(6635), 805–807.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kanwisher, N., & Driver, J. (1992). Objects, attributes, and visual attention: Which, what, and where. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 1(1), 26–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kawabata, N., Yamagami, K., & Noaki, M. (1978). Visual fixation points and depth perception. Vision Research, 18(7), 853–854.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keshvari, S., & Rosenholtz, R. (2016). Pooling of continuous feature provides a unifying account of crowding. Journal of Vision, 16(3), 39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Koch, C., & Crick, F. (2001). The zombie within. Nature, 411, 893.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krauzlis, R. J., Bollimunta, A., Arcizet, F., & Wang, L. (2014). Attention as an effect not cause. (457-464, Ed.) Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 18(9), 457-464.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kravitz, D. J., & Behrmann, M. (2014). Space-, object-, and feature-based attention interact to organize visual scenes. Attention, Percetpion, & Psychophysics, 73(8), 2434–2447.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kuhn, T. S. (1962). The structure of scientific revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Lamy, D., & Egeth, H. (2002). Object-based selection: The role of attentional shifts. Perception & Psychophysics, 64(1), 52–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Larson, A. M., Freeman, T. E., Ringer, R. V., & Loschky, L. C. (2014). The spatiotemporal dynamics of scene gist recognition. J. Exp. Psych: Human Perception & Performance, 40(2), 471–487.Google ScholarPubMed
Lavie, N., Hirst, A., de Fockert, J. W., & Viding, E. (2004). Load theory of selective attention and cognitive control. J. Exp. Psych.: General, 133(3), 339–354.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lettvin, J. Y. (1976). On seeing sidelong. The Sciences, 16(4), 10–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levin, D. T., & Simons, D. J. (1997). Failure to detect changes to attended objects in motion pictures. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 4, 501–506.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Loftus, G. R., & Ginn, M. (1984). Perceptual and conceptual masking of pictures. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 10(3), 435–441.Google ScholarPubMed
Mack, A., & Clarke, J. (2012). Gist perception requires attention. Visual Cognition, 20(3), 300–327.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mack, A., & Rock, I. (1998). Inattentional blindness. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Manassi, M., Lonchampt, S., Clarke, A., & Herzog, M. H. (2016). What crowding can tell us about object representations. Journal of Vision, 16(3):35, 1–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Manassi, M., Sayim, B., & Herzog, M. H. (2012). Grouping, pooling, and when bigger is better in visual crowding. Journal of Vision, 12(10):13, 1–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martinez-Trujillo, J., & Treue, S. (2002). Attentional modulation strength in cortical area MT depends on stimulus contrast. Neuron, 35, 365–370.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Matsukura, M., Brockmole, J. R., Boot, W. R., & Henderson, J. M. (2011). Oculomotor capture during real-world scene viewing depends on cognitive load. Vision Research, 5(1), 546–552.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maunsell, J. H., & Treue, S. (2006). Feature-based attention in visual cortex. Trends in Neuroscience, 29(6), 317–322.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McDermott, J. H., & Simoncelli, E. P. (2011). Sound texture perception via statistics of the auditory periphery: evidence from sound synthesis. Neuron, 71, 926–940.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moran, J., & Desimone, R. (1985). Selective attention gates visual processing in the extrastriate cortex. Science, 229(4715), 782–784.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Neisser, U. (1976). Cognition and reality. San Francisco: Freeman.Google Scholar
Neumann, O. (1987). Beyond capacity: A functional view of attention. In Heuer, H., & Sanders, A. F., Perspectives on Perception and Action, pp. 361–394. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Oliva, A., & Torralba, A. (2001). Modeling the shape of the scene: A holistic representation of the spatial envelope. International Journal of Computer Vision 42, 145–175. doi: 10.1023/A:1011139631724 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oliva, A., & Torralba, A. (2006). Building the gist of a scene: The role of global image features in recognition. Prog. Brain Res., 155, 23–36.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Palmer, E. M., Fencsik, D. E., Flusberg, S. J., Horowitz, T. S., & Wolfe, J. M. (2011). Signal detection evidence for limited capacity in visual search. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 73, 2413–2424.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Palmer, J., Ames, C. T., & Lindsey, D. T. (1993). Measuring the effect of attention on simple visual search. J. of Exp. Psych.: Human Perception & Performance, 19(1), 108–130.Google ScholarPubMed
Parkes, L., Lund, J., Angelucci, A., Solomon, J. A., & Morgan, J. (2001). Compulsory averaging of crowded orientation signals in human vision. Nature Neuroscience, 4, 739–744.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peterson, M. A., & Gibson, B. S. (1991). Directing spatial attention within an object: Altering the functional equivalence of shape description. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 17(1), 170–182.Google Scholar
Piggins, D. (1979). the influence of line reduction and image stabilization on Necker cube reversal: comments upon Ellis and Stark (1978). Perception, 8, 719–720.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Poder, E., & Wagemans, J. (2007). Crowding with conjunctions of simple features. Journal of Vision, 7(2), 23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pooresmaeli, A., & Roelfsema, P. R. (2014). A growth-cone model for the spread of object-based attention during contour grouping. Current Biology, 24, 2869–2877. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2014.10.007 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Portilla, J., & Simoncelli, E. P. (2000). A parametric texture model based on joint statistics of complex wavelet coefficients. International Journal of Computer Vision, 40(1), 49–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Potter, M. C. (1975). Meaning in visual search. Science, 187, 965–966.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pylyshyn, Z. W., & Storm, R. W. (1988). Tracking multiple independent targets: evidence for a parallel tracking mechanism. Spatial Vision, 3(3), 1–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Recarte, M. A., & Nunes, L. M. (2003). Mental workload while driving: Effects on visual search, discrimination, and decision making. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 9(2), 119–137.Google ScholarPubMed
Rensink, R. A. (2000). Seeing, sensing, and scrutinizing. Vision Research, 40, 1469–1487.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rensink, R. A., O’Regan, J. K., & Clark, J. J. (1997). To see or not to see: The need for attention to perceive changes in scenes. Psychological Science, 8(5), 368–373.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reynolds, J. H., Pasternak, T., & Desimone, R. (2000). Attention increases sensitivity of V4 neurons. Neuron, 26, 703–714.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robertshaw, K. D., & Wilkie, R. M. (2008). Does gaze influence steering around a bend? Journal of Vision, 8(4), 18.1–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosenholtz, R. (2011). What your visual system sees where you are not looking. Proc. SPIE 7865, Hum. Vis. Electron. Imaging, XVI. San Francisco: SPIE.Google Scholar
Rosenholtz, R. (2014). Texture perception. In Wagemans, J. (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Perceptual Organization (pp. 167–186). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Rosenholtz, R. (2016). Capabilities and limitations of peripheral vision. Annual Rev. of Vision Sci., 2(1), 437–457.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosenholtz, R. (2017). Capacity limits and how the visual system copes with them. Journal of Imaging Science and Technology (Proc. HVEI, 2017), 7865, 8–23.Google Scholar
Rosenholtz, R. (2020). Demystifying visual awareness: Peripheral encoding plus limited decision complexity resolve the paradox of rich visual experience and curious perceptual failures. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 82(3), 901–925. doi: 10.3758/s13414-019-01968-1 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosenholtz, R., Huang, J., & Ehinger, K. A. (2012). Rethinking the role of top-down attention in vision: effects attributable to a lossy representation in peripheral vision. Frontiers in Psychology, 3:13. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00013 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosenholtz, R., Huang, J., Raj, A., Balas, B., & Ilie, L. (2012). A summary statistic representation in peripheral vision explains visual search. Journal of Vision, 12(4):14, 1–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosenholtz, R., Yu, D., & Keshvari, S. (2019). Challenges to pooling models of crowding: Implications for visual mechanisms. Journal of Vision, 19(7), 15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rousselet, G. A., Joubert, O., & Fabre-Thorpe, M. (2005). How long to get to the “gist” of real-world natural scenes. Visual Cognition, 12(6), 852–877.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rousselet, G. A., Thorpe, S. J., & Fabre-Thorpe, M. (2004). Processing of one, two, or four natural scenes in humans: the limits of parallelism. Vision Research, 44(9), 877–894.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ruggieri, V., & Fernandez, M. F. (1994). Gaze orientation in perception of reversible figures. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 78, 299–303.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sayim, B., Westheimer, G., & Herzog, M. H. (2010). Gestalt factors modulate basic spatial vision. Psychological Science, 21(5), 641–644.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shaw, M. L. (1978). A capacity allocation model for reaction time. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 4(4), 586–598.Google Scholar
Simons, D. J., & Chabris, C. F. (1999). Gorillas in our midst: Sustained inattentional blindness for dynamic events. Perception, 28, 1059–1074.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, M. E., Sharan, L., Park, E., Loschky, L. C., & Rosenholtz, R. (under revision). Difficulty detecting changes in complex scenes depends in part upon the strengths and limitations of peripheral vision. Journal of Vision.Google Scholar
Snyder, C. R. (1972). Selection, inspection, and naming in visual search. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 92(3), 428–431.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stewart, T. (2022, March). Overview of motor vehicle crashes in 2020. National Highway Safety Traffic Administration.Google Scholar
Strasburger, H., Rentschler, I., & Jüttner, M. (2011). Peripheral vision and pattern recognition: A review. Journal of Vision, 11(5), 13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Theeuwes, J. (1992). Perceptual selectivity for color and form. Perception & Psychophysics, 51(6), 599–606.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tractinsky, N., & Shinar, D. (2008). Do we bump into things more while speaking on a cell phone? Proc. CHI ’08 Extended Abstracts, Alt CHI (pp. 2433-2442). New York: ACM.Google Scholar
Treisman, A. (2006). How the deployment of attention determines what we see. Visual Cognition, 14, 411–443.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Treisman, A., & Gelade, G. (1980). A feature-integration theory of attention. Cogn. Psychol., 12, 97–136.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Treisman, A., & Schmidt, H. (1982). Illusory conjunctions in the perception of objects. Cognitive Psychology, 14, 107–141.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tsal, Y., & Kolbet, L. (1985). Disambiguating ambiguous figures by selective attention. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 37(1), 25–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ullman, S. (1984). Visual routines. Cognition, 18, 94–159.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ullman, S. (1996). Visual cognition and visual routines. In Ullman, S., High-Level Vision (pp. 263–315). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van Essen, D. C., & Anderson, C. H. (1995). Information processing strategies and pathways in the primate visual system. In Zornetzer, S. F., Davis, J. L., Lau, C., & McKenna, T. (Eds.), An Introduction to Neural and Electronic Networks (2nd ed., pp. 45–76). San Diego, CA: Academic.Google Scholar
VanRullen, R., Reddy, L., & Koch, C. (2004). Visual search and dual tasks reveal two distinct attentional resources. J. Cogn. Neurosci., 16, 4–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wolfe, B., Dobres, J., Rosenholtz, R., & Reimer, B. (2017). More than the Useful Field: Considering peripheral vision in driving. Applied Ergonomics, 65, 316–325.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wolfe, B., Sawyer, B. D., Kosovicheva, A., Reimer, B., & Rosenholtz, R. (2019). Detection of brake lights while distracted: Separating peripheral vision from cognitive load. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 81(8), 2798–2813.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wolfe, B., Seppelt, B. D., Mehler, B., Reimer, B., & Rosenholtz, R. (2019). Rapid holistic perception and evasion of road hazards. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 149(3), 490–500.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wolfe, J. M. (1998). What can 1 million trials tell us about visual search. Psychological Science, 9(1), 33–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wolfe, J. M. (1999). Inattentional amnesia. In Coltheart, V. (Ed.), Fleeting Memories (pp. 71–94). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Wolfe, J. M., Kosovicheva, A., & Wolfe, B. (2022). Normal blindness: when we Look But Fail To See. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 26(9), 809–819.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wolfe, J. M., Vo, M. L.-H., Evans, K. K., & Greene, M. R. (2011). Visual search in scenes involves selective and non-selective pathways. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15(2), 77–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wu, W. (2023, December 15). We know what attention is! Retrieved from Trends in Cognitive Sciences: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2023.11.007 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Young, R. (2012). Cognitive distraction while driving: A critical review of definitions and prevalence in crashes. SAE International Journal of Passenger Cars -- Electronic and Electrical Systems, 5(1), 326–342.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhang, X., Huang, J., Yigit-Elliot, S., & Rosenholtz, R. (2015). Cube search, revisited. Journal of Vision, 15(3), 9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zivony, A., & Eimer, M. (2021). The diachronic account of attentional selectivity. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 29(4). doi: 10.3758/s13423-021-02023-7 Google ScholarPubMed