Glossary

adaptivity

The ability of people or technology to change in order to fit a specific need. For example, technology can be used to automatically provide different content or assessment items to learners based on their responses to earlier prompts in a learning system. Similarly, teacher and/or learners may change their behaviors to adjust to shifts in learning environments or technologies.

affordance

What something makes possible or what it inhibits. Originally conceived by Gibson in Reference Gibson1979 in his book, The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception, the concept of affordances has been used broadly with technology to show what it brings to or takes away from a teaching or learning event.

artificial intelligence (AI)

The use of technology to emulate the intelligence of a human being. AI systems typically consist of a knowledge base, an interface through which interactions with the AI take place, and a system of “learning” from input received over time.

asynchronous learning

A form of educational mode that allows learners to access and complete learning materials, resources, activities, prerecorded videos, and assignments on their own schedule, which usually takes place through a learning management system (LMS). Instructor and learners are able to interact through the LMS, or discussion forum or email, remotely at different times (cf. synchronous learning).

augmented reality (AR)

The use of technology to link between the real and the virtual. It may be used to add multimedia information to a real world environment, such as video to a paper-based picture book.

automatic speech recognition (ASR)

– Also known as speech to text (STT), this is a technology that converts spoken language into written text. It enables human–computer interaction and has been applied to detect pronunciation errors and grade pronunciation in language education.

autonomy

A term used to describe the ability of a learner to be able to take responsibility for their own learning, including the selection of content, the manner in which this content is learned, evaluation of learning, and setting of short- and long-term goals. It is often closely associated with motivation, and like motivation it is considered difficult to accurately measure and observe.

blended learning

see hybrid learning

CALL

The acronym for computer-assisted language learning is the most enduring of the terms used to describe the field. Other terms such as technological-enhanced language learning (TELL) and technology-assisted language learning (TALL) have had some degree of usage, but CALL remains in the titles of several journals in the field (see Chapter 1 for more information).

collaboration

The act of carrying out tasks and activities with others, usually with a shared goal or planned outcome. Through this process, participants are able to both share their knowledge and learn from others during the process of completing the task or activity.

communicative language teaching (CLT)

An approach to language education that places emphasis on the development of communicative competence as the primary objective of learning the target language. In CLT, learning activities such as role-plays, group work, and discussions are commonly employed to facilitate meaningful communication.

corrective feedback (CF)

A form of feedback on linguistic errors and mistakes provided to learners by instructors, peers, or technology, for example, automated written corrective feedback (AWCF).

critical thinking

A learning objective that aims to develop learners’ understanding, independent thinking, and problem-solving skills. It emphasizes the ability to consider diverse viewpoints and analyze information.

data-driven learning (DDL)

A language learning approach based on language data such as corpora designed to encourage learners to make their own deductions about how the target language is used.

distance learning

Although this traditionally took place through correspondence using paper-based materials, more recently it has become synonymous with “e-learning” or online learning. Teachers and learners may have no actual physical interaction with one another during the course of study, but there are forms of distance learning that include short-term face-to-face sessions as well.

Diversity (learner diversity)

The differences between learners, such as their background language and experiences, their culture, and their motivation, agency, and aptitude for learning.

educational context

A broad term which can be used to describe the various attributes of the environment in which something is taught or learned. It has been used to encompass the teaching approaches, the technologies that are available, learning support, and the overall curriculum.

extended reality (XR)

An umbrella term which is used to include the various experiences of augmented reality and virtual reality, where individuals are able to experience real or virtual worlds through technology.

flipped classroom

See flipped learning.

flipped learning

Although some argue for a distinction with flipped classrooms, both refer to an educational approach that allows learners to access instructional materials or contents before the class, for example learning through reading online materials or watching online lectures. During class time, learners’ engagement in interactive discussions and deeper learning are emphasized.

high-tech

An abbreviation for high-technology, which refers to the use of sophisticated, advanced, or emerging technologies (cf. low-tech).

hybrid learning

– Also known as “blended learning,” which refers to an educational model combining traditional in-person instruction with online learning. Its flexibility provides a balanced approach between the two methods to facilitate a more interactive and collaborative learning experience.

hypertext

A word, phrase, or section of text that connects to another piece of text or document. It can be used as electronic glossing for vocabulary learning (see examples in Chapter 29).

immersion

The process of learning content through the target language in a manner that results in acquisition of that language. While there are different models for this, one of the most common is to start with an approach that includes a higher degree of language instruction in the early stages and gradually moves to a complete focus on the content only.

incidental learning

The process of acquiring an aspect of a second language subconsciously while engaged in activities such as reading or listening. This is most commonly associated with vocabulary, but there have been cases of grammar being considered as being acquired incidentally as well.

individualized learning

A plan of study tailored to an individual learner’s needs and abilities. It may be designed by the teacher or by using some form of artificial intelligence which enables a system to adapt to a learner’s changing needs (cf. personalized learning).

input hypothesis

Based on work by Krashen, the premise is that a language can only be learned if there is sufficient input that is above the learner’s current level but is still comprehensible to them. (See S. Krashen (1983), Second language acquisition theory and the preparation of teachers: Toward a rationale. In J. E. Alertis, H. H. Stern, & P. Strevens (Eds.), GURT ’83: Applied linguistics and the preparation of second language teachers: Towards a rationale (pp. 253–263), Georgetown University Press.)

intelligent personal assistants (IPAs)

Devices that allow a user to interact with them to carry out activities or tasks based on the user’s commands through text, speech, or other input including GPS or online sources.

intercultural communication

Communication that takes place between individuals of different cultural backgrounds. This type of communication is often the topic of research that explores how to overcome potential problems of bias and cultural stereotyping to achieve better communication.

language MOOCs (LMOOCs) and MOOCs

Derived from Massive Open Online Courses, they are designed specifically for learning a language, typically with a syllabus that includes both language and content elements as well as a forum for communication among the participants in the target language.

learner training

The provision of instruction in how to use a technology or technologies, ideally including an overview of not only how the use them in general but also how to apply them to specific learning strategies. This should include scope for learners to reflect on these strategies and to create their own (see K. Romeo, & P. Hubbard (Reference Romeo, Hubbard, Levy, Blin, Siskin and Takeuchi2010). Pervasive CALL learner training for improving listening proficiency, in M. Levy, F. Blin, C. Siskin, & O. Takeuchi (Eds.), WorldCALL: International perspectives on computer-assisted language learning (pp. 215–225). Routledge).

literacy

Its primary meaning has been the ability to read and write, but it has also been extended to include comprehension and communication skills. More recently the term digital literacy has been used, meaning the ability to find, evaluate, and communicate information through digital technologies.

low-tech

An abbreviation for low-technology, which refers to an educational setting that lacks advanced technologies, adopting relatively fewer innovative technologies or no technology at all (e.g. relying on pencils and paper) (cf. high-tech).

mobile-assisted language learning (MALL)

The teaching and learning of a language through the use of mobile devices. These devices may be used within a fixed environment or portably and may allow interactivity between the learner(s) and the context in which learning takes place.

motivation

A highly complex concept of the feelings behind an action. In the field of language education, it is often used to refer to the degree to which learners wish to engage in language learning or the reasons behind learning a language. This is notoriously difficult to quantify and is usually measured through observing behavior associated with language learning.

multiliteracies

The ability to create and interpret meaning across a wide range of modes such as visual, oral, kinaesthetic, and written modes, understanding that these may carry different meanings across different cultures.

online communities

A group of people using online tools to communicate with one another on topics of mutual interest.

online learning

The process of learning a language using digital tools. This learning can take place in entirely online environments where teachers and learners do not share physical learning spaces through to making up a part of a predominantly face-to-face learning environment.

open education

A concept based on the belief that education is a fundamental right and that learning materials and resources should be free to use, share, and adapt by all.

Open Educational Resources (OER)

Resources that arise from a movement for the creation of a public digital library of freely available digital resources.

personalized learning

A plan of study where the learner is involved in the process of making decisions about what and how they learn based on their own skills, abilities, and preferences (cf. individualized learning).

phoneme

A distinct unit of sound within a certain language that makes it distinguishable from other lexical or morphological units within that language. For example, “pat” and “bat” share the same sounds apart from the initial phoneme of /p/ and /b/, which results in a different meaning.

professional development

An ongoing growth process for educators to improve their pedagogical professional expertise, such as teaching skills, curriculum design, and classroom management.

research context

The factors that make up the environment in which research is conducted, such as the language(s) being learned, the experience and skills of both teachers and learning, the available technologies, and support from administration.

second language acquisition

A complex process of learning the various components that make up the target language, including pronunciation, spelling, vocabulary, syntax, and pragmatics. The term is typically used to refer to the learning that occurs in both formal and informal learning situations.

self-directed learning

A process of learning where an individual takes control over their own learning and which is built on the characteristics of a learner including their self-efficacy and motivation.

self-regulated learning

A process of learning where an individual decides on the content of their learning and actively monitors their progress as they learn.

sociocultural theories

A term used to refer to a set of theories that are associated with the ways in which society contributes to the development of an individual. At its core is the premise that language and culture are a product of the society in which they occur and that they can influence the ways in which individuals within that society perceive the world.

synchronous learning

A form of real-time learning that allows instructor and learners, or a group of learners, engage in the course content simultaneously but from different places, through, for example, videoconferencing, webinars, online chat, and live streaming (cf. asynchronous learning).

tandem (learning)

The process of two or more learners studying the language of the other engaging in activities that can enhance the learning of both languages. A typical example is when two learners exchange emails with one another in both their first and target languages and provide feedback on each other’s writing.

task-based language teaching/learning

A foreign or second language approach that emphasizes using meaningful and authentic tasks to encourage learners to use the target language to achieve certain outcomes.

teacher resistance

The reluctance or opposition of educators to adopt or embrace new technologies or teaching methodologies into their language teaching practices.

telecollaborative learning

A form of collaborative learning that using information and communications technologies such as audio- and videoconferencing. It allows leaners to engage with one another regardless of geographical boundaries.

virtual exchange

An approach to language learning where learners connect with one another to communicate, interact, and collaborate, typically through the medium of technology. Through this experience, it is thought that learners have the opportunity to come in contact with other languages and cultures that help them to deepen their understanding of both.

virtual reality (VR)

The use of technology to emulate reality, such as the creation of a virtual environment that represents the real world. They will typically allow participants to interact with objects and people within the environment using voice and/or text, and, if the interface allows it, kinaesthetic actions.