Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-r6qrq Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-25T10:29:25.968Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

1 - Major Paradigms and Approaches in Psychology

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 May 2019

By
John G. Benjafield
Edited by
Robert J. Sternberg  and
Wade E. Pickren
Robert J. Sternberg
Affiliation:
Cornell University, New York
Wade E. Pickren
Affiliation:
Ithaca College, New York
Get access

Summary

Psychology became an independent subject during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Competing approaches to psychology, called schools, arose during this period. Each school had different views concerning the proper subject matter and research methods for psychology. Introspectionism analyzed subjective experience using experimental methods. Behaviorism rejected the study of subjective experience and insisted on objective methods. Functionalism was inspired by Darwin’s evolutionary theory and was open to the use of a variety of methods. Gestalt psychology studied subjective experience but took a holistic approach rather than the analytic approach of introspectionism. Psychoanalysis was a theory of development and personality based largely on clinical experience. The differences between the schools were never completely resolved, and psychologists wondered if there would ever be a paradigm that provided a unified approach to the subject. Cognitive psychology, which appropriated information-theoretic and computational approaches, appeared to some to provide such a paradigm. However, no single approach to psychology emerged triumphant. Indeed, many psychologists are flexible enough to tailor their approach to the problem on which they are working rather than use the same approach regardless of the nature of the problem.

Keywords

behaviorismcognitive psychologyfunctionalismgestalt psychologyinterdisciplinary approachesintrospectionismparadigmsneuropsychologypsychoanalysis
Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook of the Intellectual History of Psychology , pp. 4 - 28
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ach, N. (1951). Determining tendencies and awareness. In Rapaport, D. (Ed.), Organization and Pathology of Thought (pp. 15–38). New York: Columbia University Press. (Original work published 1905)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allport, G. W., & Boring, E. G. (1946). Psychology and social relations at Harvard University. American Psychologist, 1, 119–122.Google Scholar
American Psychological Association (APA) Presidential Task Force. (2010). Psychology as a Core Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Discipline. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Andersen, H., Barker, P., & Chen, X. (2006). The Cognitive Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Angell, J. R. (1907). The province of functional psychology. Psychological Review, 14, 61–91.Google Scholar
Angell, J. R. (1936). James Rowland Angell. In Murchison, C. (Ed.), The International University Series in Psychology: A History of Psychology in Autobiography (Vol. 3, pp. 1–38). Worcester, MA: Clark University Press. https://doi.org/10.1037/11247-001.Google Scholar
Asch, S. E. (1952). Social Psychology. New York: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Asch, S. E. (1956). Studies of independence and conformity: I. A minority of one against a unanimous majority. Psychological Monographs, 70, 1–70.Google Scholar
Asch, S. E. (1962). A problem in the theory of associations. Psychologische Beiträge, 6, 553–563.Google Scholar
Asch, S. E. (1969). A reformulation of the problem of associations. American Psychologist, 24, 92–102.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ash, M. G. (1995). Gestalt Psychology in German Culture, 1890–1967: Holism and the Quest for Objectivity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Ash, M. G. (2003). Psychology. In Porter, T. M. & Ross, D. (Eds.), The Cambridge History of Science (Vol. 7, pp. 251–273). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Backhouse, R. E., & Fontaine, P. (2010). Toward a history of the social sciences. In Backhouse, R. E. & Fontaine, P. (Eds.), The History of the Social Sciences Since 1945 (pp. 184–223). New York: Cambridge University Press,Google Scholar
Benjafield, J. G. (2008). Revisiting Wittgenstein on Köhler and gestalt psychology. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 44, 99–118.Google Scholar
Benjafield, J. G. (2012a). Psychology: A Concise History. Toronto: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Benjafield, J. G. (2012b). The long past and short history of the vocabulary of anglophone psychology. History of Psychology, 15, 50–71. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023386.Google Scholar
Benjafield, J. G. (2013). The vocabulary of anglophone psychology in the context of other subjects. History of Psychology, 16, 36–56. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030532.Google Scholar
Benjafield, J. G. (2014). Patterns of similarity and difference between the vocabularies of psychology and other subjects. History of Psychology, 17, 19–35. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035386.Google Scholar
Benjafield, J. G. (2015). A History of Psychology (4th ed.). Toronto: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Benjafield, J., Smilek, D., & Kingstone, A. (2010). Cognition (4th ed.). Toronto: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Bilder, R. M., & LeFever, F. F. (Eds). (1998). Neuroscience of the Mind on the Centennial of Freud’s “Project for a Scientific Psychology.” New York: New York Academy of Sciences.Google Scholar
Bird, A. (2012). The structure of scientific revolutions and its significance: An essay review of the fiftieth anniversary edition. British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 63, 859–883.Google Scholar
Boring, E. G. (1929). A History of Experimental Psychology. New York: Century.Google Scholar
Boring, E. G. (1963). The Physical Dimensions of Consciousness. New York: Dover. (Original work published 1933).Google Scholar
Broadbent, E. (2017). Interactions with robots: The truths we reveal about ourselves. Annual Review of Psychology, 68, 627–652.Google Scholar
Brown, R. E., & Milner, P. M. (2003). The legacy of Donald O. Hebb: More than the Hebb synapse. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 4, 1013–1019. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn1257.Google Scholar
Bruner, J. S., Goodnow, J. J., & Austin, G. A. (1956). A Study of Thinking. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Brunswik, E. (1956). Perception and the Representative Design of Experiments. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Burgard, D. E. (2001). Journals of the century in psychology. Serials Librarian, 39, 41–56.Google Scholar
Burman, J. T. (2007). Piaget no “remedy” for Kuhn, but the two should be read together: Comment on Tsou’s “Piaget vs. Kuhn on scientific progress.” Theory & Psychology, 17, 721–732.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buss, A. R. (1978). The structure of psychological revolutions. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 14, 57–64.Google Scholar
Capshew, J. H. (1999). Psychologists on the March: Science, Practice and Professional Identity in America, 1929–1969. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, X., & Barker, P. (2000). Continuity through revolutions: A frame-based account of conceptual change during scientific revolutions. Philosophy of Science, 67, S208–S223.Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1957). Syntactic Structures. The Hague: Mouton.Google Scholar
Claparède, E. (1933). La genèse de l’hypothèse. Archives de Psychologie, 24, 1–54.Google Scholar
Collins, A. (2007). From H=log s to conceptual framework: A short history of information. History of Psychology, 10, 44–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Croce, P. J. (2010). Reaching beyond Uncle William: A century of William James in theory and in life. History of Psychology, 13, 351–377.Google Scholar
Danziger, K. (1997). Naming the Mind: How Psychology Found Its Language. London: Sage.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Danziger, K. (2013). Psychology and its history. Theory & Psychology, 23, 829–839.Google Scholar
Dawson, M. R. W. (2005). Connectionism: A Hands-on Approach. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Dewey, J. (1900). Psychology and social practice. Psychological Review, 7, 105–124.Google Scholar
Dewey, J. (1997). Experience and Education. New York: Touchstone. (Original work published 1938).Google Scholar
Doyle, J. (2006). Extending Mechanics to Minds: The Mechanical Foundations of Psychology and Economics. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Driver-Linn, E. (2003). Where is psychology going? Structural fault lines revealed by psychologists’ use of Kuhn. American Psychologist, 58, 269–278.Google Scholar
Duncker, K. (1945). On problem solving. Psychological Monographs, 58, Whole No. 270.Google Scholar
Ebbinghaus, H. (1908). Psychology: An Elementary Textbook. Translated by Meyer, M.. Boston: Heath.Google Scholar
Ericsson, K. A., & Simon, K. A. (1980). Verbal reports as data. Psychological Review, 87, 215–251.Google Scholar
Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and Society. New York: Norton.Google Scholar
Farrell, B. A. (1978). The progress of psychology. British Journal of Psychology, 69, 1–8.Google Scholar
Fodor, J., & Piattelli-Palmerini, M. (2011). What Darwin Got Wrong. New York: Picador.Google Scholar
French, R. M. (2000). The Turing test: The first 50 years. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4, 115–122.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Freud, S. (1954). Project for a scientific psychology. Translated by Mosbacher, E. & Strachey, J.. In Bonaparte, M., Freud, A., & Kris, E. (Eds.), The Origins of Psychoanalysis: Letters to Wilhelm Fliess, Drafts and Notes: 1887–1902 (pp. 355–455). New York: Basic Books. (Original draft 1895).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freud, S. (1965). The Interpretation of Dreams. Translated by Strachey, J.. New York: Avon. (Original work published 1900).Google Scholar
Friman, P. C., Allen, K. D., Kerwin, M. L. E., & Larzelere, V. (1993). Changes in modern psychology: A citation analysis of the Kuhnian displacement thesis. American Psychologist, 48, 658–664.Google Scholar
Gale, R. M. (1997). John Dewey’s naturalization of William James. In Putnam, R. A. (Ed.), The Cambridge Companion to William James (pp. 49–68). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Goethe, J. W. von. (1970). Theory of Colors. Translated by Eastlake, C. L.. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. (Original work published 1840).Google Scholar
Goethe, J. W. (1995). The metamorphosis of plants. In Miller, D. (Ed. & Trans.), Scientific Studies (pp. 76–97). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. (Original work published 1790).Google Scholar
Google Scholar. (2017). Retrieved from https://scholar.google.ca.Google Scholar
Green, C. D. (2009). Darwinian theory, functionalism, and the first American psychological revolution. American Psychologist, 64, 75–83.Google Scholar
Green, C. D. (2015). Why psychology isn’t unified, and probably never will be. Review of General Psychology, 19, 207–214.Google Scholar
Green, C. D., Feinerer, I., & Burman, J. T. (2013). Beyond the schools of psychology 1: A digital analysis of Psychological Review, 1894–1903. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 49, 167–189.Google Scholar
Green, C. D., Feinerer, I., & Burman, J. T. (2014). Beyond the schools of psychology 2: A digital analysis of Psychological Review, 1904–1923. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 50, 249–279.Google Scholar
Green, C. D., Shore, M., & Teo, T. (Eds.). (2001). The Transformation of Psychology: Influences of 19th-century Philosophy, Technology, and Natural Science. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Gurwitsch, A. (1966). Some aspects and developments of gestalt psychology. In Gurwitsch, A. (Ed.), Studies in Phenomenology and Psychology. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press.Google Scholar
Hatfield, G., & Epstein, W. (1987). The status of the minimum principle in the theoretical analysis of visual perception. Psychological Bulletin, 97, 155–186.Google Scholar
Hebb, D. O. (1949). The Organization of Behavior. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Hebb, D. O. (1958). A Textbook of Psychology. Philadelphia: Saunders.Google Scholar
Hebb, D. O. (1980). D.O. Hebb. In Lindzey, G. (Ed.), A History of Psychology in Autobiography (Vol. 7, pp. 275–303). San Francisco: Freeman.Google Scholar
Heidbreder, E. (1933). Seven Psychologies. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.Google Scholar
Henriques, G. (2017). Achieving a unified clinical science requires a meta-theoretical solution: Comment on Melchert (2016). American Psychologist, 72, 393–394.Google Scholar
Hilgard, E. R. (1987). Psychology in America: A Historical Survey. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.Google Scholar
Hyman, I. (2014). The rallying cry for the cognitive revolutions. Introduction to Cognitive Psychology: The Classic Edition, by Neisser, U. (pp. xv–xix). New York: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Jackson, M. R. (2017). Unified clinical science, or paradigm diversity? Comment on Melchert (2016). American Psychologist, 72, 395–396.Google Scholar
James, W. (1904). The Chicago School. Psychological Bulletin, 1, 1–5.Google Scholar
James, W. (1983). The Principles of Psychology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. (Original work published 1890).Google Scholar
Joseph, S. (2017). The problem of choosing between irreconcilable theoretical orientations: Comment on Melchert (2016). American Psychologist, 72, 397–398.Google Scholar
Kelly, J. (2014). Sigmund Freud: The phrases you use without realizing it. BBC News Magazine. www.bbc.com/news/magazine-29251040.Google Scholar
Kirsch, I. (1977). Psychology’s first paradigm. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 13, 317–325.Google Scholar
Koffka, K. (1935). Principles of Gestalt Psychology. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World.Google Scholar
Köhler, W. (1960). Dynamics in Psychology. New York: Grove. (Original work published 1940).Google Scholar
Köhler, W. (1967). Physical Gestalten. In Ellis, W. D. (Ed.), A Source Book of Gestalt Psychology (pp. 7–53). New York: Humanities Press. (Original work published 1920).Google Scholar
Kuhn, T. S. (1970). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Lashley, K. S. (1929). Brain Mechanisms and Intelligence. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Leahey, T. H. (1992). The mythical revolutions of American psychology. American Psychologist, 47, 308–318.Google Scholar
Lewin, K. (1945). The Research Center for Group Dynamics at Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Sociometry, 8, 126–136.Google Scholar
Locke, J. (1964). An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. London: Fontana/Collins. (Original work published 1690).Google Scholar
Luce, R. D. (2003). Whatever happened to information theory in psychology? Review of General Psychology, 7, 183–188.Google Scholar
Maslow, A. H. (1946). Problem-centering vs. means-centering in science. Philosophy of Science, 13, 326–331. https://doi.org/10.1086/286907.Google Scholar
Maslow, A. H. (1962). Toward a Psychology of Being. New York: Van Nostrand.Google Scholar
McClelland, J. L., Rumelhart, D. E., & Hinton, G. E. (1986). The appeal of parallel distributed processing. In Rumelhart, D. E. & McClelland, J. L. (Eds.), Parallel Distributed Processing: Explorations in the Micro Structure of Cognition (Vol. 1, pp. 3–44). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
McKeon, R. (Ed.). (1941). The Basic Works of Aristotle. New York: Random House.Google Scholar
Melchert, T. P. (2016). Leaving behind our preparadigmatic past: Professional psychology as a unified clinical science. American Psychologist, 71, 486–496. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0040227.Google Scholar
Miller, G. A. (2003). The cognitive revolution: A historical perspective. Trends in Cognitive Science, 7, 141–144.Google Scholar
Miller, G. A., Galanter, E., & Pribram, K. (1960). Plans and the Structure of Behavior. New York: Holt, Rinehart and WinstonGoogle Scholar
Milner, P. M. (1993). The mind and Donald O. Hebb. Scientific American, 268, 124–129.Google Scholar
Milner, P. M. (2003). A brief history of the Hebbian learning rule. Canadian Psychology, 44, 5–9.Google Scholar
Morawski, J. G. (1986). Organizing knowledge and behavior at Yale’s Institute of Human Relations. Isis, 77, 219–242.Google Scholar
Neisser, U. (1967). Cognitive Psychology. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.Google Scholar
Neisser, U. (1972). A paradigm shift in psychology. Science, 176, 628–630.Google Scholar
Neisser, U. (1976). Cognition and Reality. San Francisco: Freeman.Google Scholar
Neisser, U. (2007). Ulric Neisser. In Lindzey, G. & Runyan, W. (Eds.), A History of Psychology in Autobiography (Vol. 9, pp. 269–301). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Newell, A. (1977). On the analysis of human problem solving protocols. In Johnson-Laird, P. N. & Wason, P. (Eds.), Thinking: Readings in Cognitive Science (pp. 46–61). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Original work published 1966).Google Scholar
Newell, A. (1985). Duncker on thinking: An inquiry into progress in cognition. In Koch, S. & Leary, D. (Eds.), A Century of Psychology as Science: Retrospections and Assessments (pp. 392–419). New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Newell, A., Shaw, J. C., & Simon, H. A. (1958). Chess-playing programs and the problem of complexity. IBM Journal of Research and Development 2, 320–335.Google Scholar
Pavlov, I. P. (1928). Lectures on Conditioned Reflexes. Translated by Gantt, W. H.. New York: International Publishers.Google Scholar
Piaget, J. (1971a). Biology and Knowledge. Translated by Walsh, B.. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Piaget, J. (1971b). Structuralism. Translated by Maschler, C.. New York: Harper.Google Scholar
Pickren, W. (2003). An elusive honor: Psychology, behavior, and the Nobel prize. American Psychologist, 58, 721–722. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.58.9.721.Google Scholar
Pickren, W. (Ed.). (2010). International historiography of psychology. History of Psychology, 13, 215–334.Google Scholar
Pickren, W. (2012). Internationalizing the history of psychology course in the USA. In Leong, F. T., Pickren, W. E., Leach, M. M., & Marsella, A. J. (Eds.), Internationalizing the Psychology Curriculum in the United States (pp. 11–28). New York: Springer Science & Business Media.Google Scholar
Pinar Saygin, A., Cicekli, I., & Akman, V. (2000). Turing test: 50 years later. Minds and Machines, 10, 463–518.Google Scholar
Pribram, K., & Gill, M. (1976). Freud’s Project Re-assessed. London: Hutchinson.Google Scholar
PsycINFO. (2017). PsycINFO: A world class resource for behavioral and social science research. www.apa.org/pubs/databases/psycinfo/.Google Scholar
Rapaport, D. (1959). The structure of psychoanalytic theory. In Koch, S. (Ed.), Psychology: A Study of a Science (Vol. 3, pp. 55–183). New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Richards, G. (1991). James and Freud: Two masters of metaphor. British Journal of Psychology, 82, 205–215.Google Scholar
Richards, G. (2000). Britain on the couch: The popularization of psychoanalysis in Britain 1918–1940. Science in Context, 13, 183–230.Google Scholar
Robins, R. W., Gosling, S. D., & Craik, K. H. (1999). An empirical analysis of trends in psychology. American Psychologist, 54, 117–128.Google Scholar
Robinson, D. N. (1976). An Intellectual History of Psychology. New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Robinson, D. N. (2013). Historiography in psychology: A note on ignorance. Theory & Psychology, 23, 819–828.Google Scholar
Rosenberg, S. (1993). Chomsky’s theory of language: Some recent observations. Psychological Science, 4, 15–19.Google Scholar
Sanbonmatsu, D. M., & Sanbonmatsu, K. K. (2017). The structure of scientific revolutions: Kuhn’s misconceptions of (normal) science. Journal of Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology, 37, 133–151. https://doi.org/10.1037/teo0000059Google Scholar
Saunders, T., & Ingham, P. W. (Eds.). (2017). Special issue celebrating 100 years since “On Growth and Form” by D’Arcy Wentworth Thompson. Mechanisms of Development, 145.Google Scholar
Scripture, E. W. (1936). Autobiography. In Murchison, C. (Ed.), History of Psychology in Autobiography (Vol. 3, pp. 231–261). Worcester, MA: Clark University Press.Google Scholar
Segal, I., & Lachman, R. (1972). Complex behavior or higher mental process: Is there a paradigm shift? American Psychologist, 27, 46–55.Google Scholar
Shakow, D., & Rapaport, D. (1964). The influence of Freud on American psychology. Psychological Issues, 4, (Monograph 13).Google Scholar
Shannon, C. E., & Weaver, W. (1949). The Mathematical Theory of Communication. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press. Retrieved from http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/ms/what/shannonday/paper.htmls.Google Scholar
Simmel, M. L. (1953). The coin problem: A study in thinking. American Journal of Psychology, 66, 229–241.Google Scholar
Simon, H. A. (1981). The Sciences of the Artificial (2nd ed.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Simon, H. A. (2007). Karl Duncker and cognitive science. In Valsiner, J. (Ed.), Thinking in Psychological Science: Ideas and Their Makers. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction. (Original work published 1999).Google Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1964). Behaviorism at fifty. In Wann, T. W. (Ed.), Behaviorism and Phenomenology: Contrasting Bases for Modern Psychology (pp. 79–97). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Spear, J. H. (2007). Prominent schools or active specialties? A fresh look at some trends in psychology. Review of General Psychology, 11, 363–380.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (1988). The Triarchic Mind: A New Theory of Human Intelligence. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (2000). Cross-disciplinary verification of theories: the case of the triarchic theory. History of Psychology, 3, 177–179.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.). (2003). Psychologists Defying the Crowd: Stories of Those Who Battled the Establishment. Washington, DC: American Psychological AssociationGoogle Scholar
Sternberg, R. J., & Sternberg, K. (2016). Cognitive Psychology (7th ed.). Boston: Cengage Learning.Google Scholar
Strachey, J. (1965). Editor’s introduction. Introduction to The Interpretation of Dreams, by Freud, S. (pp. ix–xxii). Translated by Strachey, J.. New York: Avon. (Original work published 1900).Google Scholar
Thompson, D. W. (1992). On Growth and Form. Mineola, NY: Dover. (Original work published 1942).Google Scholar
Tigner, R. B., & Tigner, S. S. (2000). Triarchic theories of intelligence: Aristotle and Sternberg. History of Psychology, 3, 168–176.Google Scholar
Titchener, E. B. (1898). The postulates of a structural psychology. Philosophical Review, 7, 449–465.Google Scholar
Titchener, E. B. (1901). Experimental Psychology: A Manual of Laboratory Practice. New York: MacMillan. https://doi.org/10.1037/10766-010.Google Scholar
Truesdell, C. (1958). Recent advances in rational mechanics. Science, 127, 729–739.Google Scholar
Tryon, W. W. (2017). Basing clinical practice on unified psychological science: Comment on Melchert (2016). American Psychologist, 4, 399–400.Google Scholar
Tsou, J. Y. (2006). Genetic epistemology and Piaget’s philosophy of science: Piaget vs. Kuhn on scientific progress. Theory & Psychology, 16, 203–224.Google Scholar
Turing, A. (1950). Computing machinery and intelligence. Mind, 59, 433–450.Google Scholar
Wallach, H. (1948). Brightness constancy and the nature of achromatic colors. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38, 310–324.Google Scholar
Watson, J. B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological Review, 20, 158–177. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0074428.Google Scholar
Watson, J. B. (1916). The place of the conditioned-reflex in psychology. Psychological Review, 23, 89–116. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0070003.Google Scholar
Wertheimer, M. (1958). Principles of perceptual organization. In Beardslee, D. C. & Wertheimer, M. (Eds.), Readings in Perception. Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand. (Original work published 1923).Google Scholar
Wertheimer, M. (1967). Gestalt theory. In Ellis, W. D. (Ed.), A Source Book of Gestalt Psychology (pp. 1–16). New York: Humanities Press. (Original work published 1925).Google Scholar
Wheeler, R. H., Perkins, F. T., & Bartley, S. H. (1931). Errors in recent critiques of gestalt psychology 1: Sources of confusion. Psychological Review, 38, 109–136.Google Scholar
Wheeler, R. H., Perkins, F. T., & Bartley, S. H. (1933a). Errors in the critiques of gestalt psychology 2: Confused interpretations of the historical approach. Psychological Review, 40, 221–245.Google Scholar
Wheeler, R. H., Perkins, F. T., & Bartley, S. H. (1933b). Errors in the critiques of gestalt psychology 3: Inconsistencies in Thorndike’s system. Psychological Review, 40, 303–323.Google Scholar
Wheeler, R. H., Perkins, F. T., & Bartley, S. H. (1933c). Errors in the critiques of gestalt psychology 4: Inconsistencies in Woodworth, Spearman, and McDougall. Psychological Review, 40, 412–433.Google Scholar
Wickens, A. P. (2015). A History of the Brain: From Stone Age Surgery to Modern Neuroscience. London: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Woodworth, R. S. (1931). Contemporary Schools of Psychology. New York: Ronald Press.Google Scholar
Wundt, W. (1894). Lectures on Human and Animal Psychology. Translated by Creighton, J. E. & Titchener, E. B.. New York: Swan Sonnenschein & Co. https://doi.org/10.1037/12937-000.Google Scholar
Wundt, W. (1973). An Introduction to Psychology. Translated by Pintner, R.. New York: Arno Press. (Original work published 1912).Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×