Index

Ian Roberts

Index

AAVE. See African American Vernacular English

accents, 49–50, 139–142, 186–187

social class and, 143–144

accusative, 58, 187

affricates, 15–16, 187

African American Vernacular English (AAVE), 149–150

agent, 67, 187

air flow, modulation of, 7

air stream, 7, 13–14, 187–188

allomorph, 53, 188

allomorphy, conditioned, 53, 55–56, 192

allophones, 29, 188

conditioned allophony, 28–31

language and organisation of, 30

of phoneme, 28–30

alveolar

nasal, 14

post-, 10, 208

ridge, 8–9, 188

stops, 13

American English, 18, 23–24, 142

anterior, 37–38

aphasia, 151–155, 188. See also Broca’s aphasia; Wernicke’s aphasia

arbitrary, 82, 188–189

arguments, 92, 189

aspiration, 28, 189

assimilation, 38–39, 189

Austin, J.L., 105–106

auxiliaries, 69–70, 189

back, 17–18, 33, 35, 189–190

bilabial, 13–14, 190

bilabial stops, 12–13

blade, tongue, 10, 190

bleeding order, 42–43

bound morpheme, 49, 190–191

brain damage, 151–155

in Broca’s aphasia, 154

in Wernicke’s aphasia, 154

branches, 72–73, 190

branching nodes, 72–73, 190

British English, 18, 23–24, 139–142

RP, 142–143

Broca’s aphasia (expressive aphasia), 152–154, 188, 190, 196–197

Broca’s area, 154–155, 190

case, 191

forms, 58, 187, 191

markings, 57–60

categories, 191. See also functional categories; lexical categories

PS-rules and, 77

syntax, 66–70

universal, 177

centring diphthongs, 21–24, 191

children, first-language acquisition, 155–167

Chomsky, Noam, 64–65

argument from poverty of stimulus, 164–165

competence and performance distinction, 156–157

I-language/E-language distinction, 156

on innate ideas, 165–167

substantive universals, 176–178

Universal Grammar, 167–168

comparative reconstruction, 133–137, 191

of inflectional morphology, 136

Old English case paradigm, 136

Proto Indo-European, 134–135

of syntax, 136–137

Uralic languages, 135

verbal morphology, 136

competence, 63–64, 192

I-language, 157, 164–165

performance and, 156–157

complementary distribution, 28–30

complementisers, 77–78

complex words, 49–52

compositional semantics, 97–103, 192

compounds, 46–47, 49–51, 192

meaning and, 50

order and, 49

stress or accent pattern and, 49–50

synthetic, 50–51, 215–216

concepts, 83

conditioned allomorphy, 53, 55–56, 192

conditioned allophony, 28–31

conjugations, 56–57, 192–193

conjunction, 88–89, 95–96

connectives, 88, 193

consonantal, 36–37

consonants, 7–16, 187–188, 193. See also stop consonants

affricates, 15, 187

fricatives, 9–11

liquids, 15–16

nasal, 13–14, 33

natural classes of, 32–34

non-obstruent, 32, 36–37

phonemes, 32

syllable and, 24

vowels compared with, 16

constative sentences, 106

constituency, 73–77, 193

constituent, 65, 193

immediate, 73–74, 199

constituent structure, 70–74, 194

dominance and, 73

labelled brackets for representing, 71–72

PS-rules and, 74

tree diagrams, 72–74

continuant, 37–38

conventional, 82, 194

implicature, 111, 194

conversational implicature, 111–113

generalised, 111–113, 197–198

Cooperative Principle, 109–111, 194

correspondence, 120–126

borrowing and, 121

English-Latin, 127–128

Latin-Greek-Sanskrit, 125

parent languages and, 122–124

patterning and, 120–121

Proto Germanic, 126–128

of Romance languages, 123–124

systematic sound, 121–124

covert prestige, 144–146, 194

definite articles, 69, 194

denotations, 98–99, 194

derivation, 41–43, 51–52, 194

Descartes, René, 163–164

design feature of language, 44, 195

determiner, 72, 195

diphthongs, 21–24

centring, 21–22, 191

equilateral plotting of, 22

direct object, 58, 187, 195

disjunction, 89

exclusive, 89

inclusive, 89, 200

distinctive features, 34–39, 44, 188, 195

natural classes and, 34

of obstruents, 37–38

of past-tense endings, 38–43

of semi-vowels, 36–37

of vowels, 36–37

dominance, 73, 75–77, 195

Dryer, Matthew, 176

Ebonics. See African American Vernacular English

E-language. See External Language

accent groups in, 142

case marking on pronouns in, 57–58

German and, 121–122

Latin correspondence with, 127–128

non-standard, 145–150

Old, 131–132, 136

entities, 97–102, 196

equivalence, 90–91, 196

exclusive disjunction, 89, 196

existential quantifiers, 94–96, 196

expressive aphasia. See Broca’s aphasia

External Language (E-language), 156, 196

false propositions, 90

felicity conditions of speech acts, 106–108, 197

First Germanic Sound Shift, 129–132, 197

first-language acquisition, 155–167

argument from poverty of stimulus and, 164–165

common-sense view of, 164

distinguishing mother tongue and, 157–158

experience and, 166

first linguistic behaviour in, 158

first word in, 158–159

genetics and, 165–167

I-language competence and, 164–165

innate ideas and, 164

longer utterances in, 160

past-tense inflections and, 160–161

quantification and, 161

sentences and, 160

statistical learning and, 166–167

two-word stage of, 159

vocabulary and, 162

formal universals, 176–178

free morpheme, 49, 197

free variation, 31, 188, 197

French, 123–124, 147–148, 173–174

fricatives, 8–11, 16, 187, 197

English, 11

interdental, 10, 201

labio-dental, 9–10, 201–202

post-alveolar, 10

velar, 11

voiceless glottal, 11

voiceless interdental, 10

voiceless postalveolar, 10

front vowels, 17–18, 33

functional categories, 69–70

gender, 145–146

generate, 74, 198

genetics, 1–2, 165–167

genitive, 60, 198

gestural-visual channel of language, 5

glottal stop, 9, 13, 198

Greek, 125

Greenberg, Joseph, 169–176

implicational universals and, 172–176

language types and, 173–176

subject, verb, object sentence elements, 169–172

Grice, H. Paul, 109–110

Grimm’s Law, 129–130, 198

exceptions to, 132–133

in Indo-European context, 130–131

hard palate, 17, 188, 198

head, 50, 198–199

high, 36, 199

historical linguistics, 3, 118–138, 199

asterisk in, 134

comparative reconstruction, 133–137

correspondence and, 120–126

evolution of language and, 119

systematic sound changes and, 126–133

hypercorrection, 144

I-language. See Internal Language

illocutionary act, 106

illocutionary force, 106, 199

imperfect tense, 55, 200

implication, 90, 200

implicational universals, 172–176, 200

implicature, 109–115, 200. See also conversational implicature

conventional, 111, 194

conversational, 111–113

Cooperative Principle and, 109–111

reasoning and, 109–110

scalar, 113–115

of utterances, 115–116

inclusive disjunction, 89, 200

indefinite articles, 69, 201

indicative, 56–57

infinitive, 56–57, 201

inflection, 52–62, 201

first-language acquisition and past-tense, 160–161

in Italian, 54–57

in Latin, 58–60

in Mandarin, 60–62

morphemes, 52–53

noun, 57–58

past-tense, 52–53, 160–161

plural ending, 53–54

inflectional morphology, 52–62, 136

innate ideas, 164, 179–180

genetics and, 165–167

language structure, 165–166

interdental fricatives, 10, 201

Internal Language (I-language), 156–157, 164–165, 199

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), 201

consonants, 8–16

phonemes in, 28

vowels, 16–25

interrogatives, 108

IPA. See International Phonetic Alphabet

isogloss, 141–142, 201

Italian

correspondence in Romance languages, 123–124

inflection in, 54–57

moods, 56–57

other tenses in, 55–56

present-tense in, 54–55

Japanese, 174–175

labelled brackets, 71–72, 201

labio-dental fricatives, 9–10, 201–202

Labov, William, 143–145, 149–150

language. See also specific languages and topics

biological capacity for, 1–2

building, 169–180

definition of, 155–156

endangerment, 138

evolution of, 119

extinction of, 138

knowledge and, 1–2

types, 173–176, 202

larynx, 7, 9

lateral, 15, 202

Latin, 59–60, 122–123

case markings on nouns in, 58–60

correspondences of, 123–125, 127–128

Old English and, 131–132

Proto West Germanic and, 124–126

Romance languages and, 123–124

lax vowel, 19–20

lexical categories, 66–67

lexicon, 64, 186–187, 202

liquids, 15–16, 202

locutionary act, 106

logic, 203. See also predicate logic; propositional logic

semantics and, 86–97

truth and, 86–87

logical form, 87, 203

logical inferences, 86–87

logical scales, 113–114

long vowels, 17–20, 203

low, 36, 203

low prestige, 143, 203

Mandarin, inflection in, 60–62

Maxim of Manner, 110

Maxim of Quality, 110

Maxim of Quantity, 112–113

meaning, 81, 105. See also sentence meaning

arbitrary nature of, 82

compounds and, 50

conventional, 82

noise and, 6

reference and, 83–84

sense and, 84

sounds and, 45–46

speaker, 105

truth and, 81–87

understanding, 82–83

metaphors, 110

minimal pair, 27–28, 31, 203

monosyllabic words, 24

mood, 189, 204

morphemes, 2–3, 188, 204

bound, 49, 190–191

free, 49, 197

morphology, 2–3, 45–62, 186–187, 204

compounds and, 49–51

derivation and, 51–52

duality of patterning and, 47–49

functional categories and, 69

inflectional, 52–62, 136

lexical categories and, 67

sociolinguistic variation in, 146–147

verbal, comparative reconstruction, 136

nasal, 35, 204

nasal cavity, 13–14, 204

nasals, 13–16, 33

alveolar, 14

bilabial, 13–14

velar, 14

natural classes, 27, 32–34, 205

distinctive features and, 34

generalisations about, 43

negation, 88, 95–96, 205

expression of, in language, 147–148

in non-standard English, 145–150

negative concord, 148–150, 205

nodes, 72–73, 205

nominative, 58, 205

non-obstruent consonants, 32, 36–37

non-rhotic, 148, 205–206

non-standard English, 145–150

non-terminal node, 72–73, 206

noun phrases, 68, 71

nouns

case markings on, in Latin, 58–60

case of, 57

inflection of, 57–58

modifiers, 71

plural markings on, 61–62

Noun-Verb distinction, 176–177

nucleus, 35, 206

number, 54–55, 206

object, 169–172

direct, 58, 187, 195

obstruents, 16, 37–38, 206

Old English, 131–132, 136

oral/aural channel, of language, 5

OV languages, 137

overt prestige, 144–146, 207

palatalised phoneme, 30–31

parent languages, 122–124

past-tense

inflection, 52–53, 160–161

verb endings, 38–43

patterning, 120–121

duality of, 47–49, 195–196

patterns, 169

performance, 63–64, 156–157, 207

performative, 106, 207

perlocutionary effect, 106–108, 207

person, 54–55, 207

phoneme, 27–30, 34, 188, 207

allophone of, 28–30

consonant, 32

duality of patterning and, 47–48

free variation of, 31

IPA representation of, 28

minimal pairs and isolating, 27–28, 31

natural classes, 27, 32–34

organisation of, 30

palatised, 30–31

sounds compared with, 28–29

velarised, 30–31

vowel, 32

phonetics, 2–3, 6–26, 8, 187–188, 207

consonants, 8–16

phonology compared with, 27

vowels, 16–25

phonological rules, 27, 44, 208, 212

Rule One, 39–43

Rule Two, 40–43

phonology, 2–3, 27–44, 208

distinctive features and, 34–39

phonetics compared with, 27

phrases, 65, 208

noun, 68, 71

verb, 68, 71

phrase-structure rules (PS-rules), 74–80, 208

complementisers and, 77–78

constituency and, 75–77

dominance and, 75–77

infinite number of sentences generated by, 78–80

recursion and, 79–80

Pinker, Steven, 65

place of articulation, 8–9, 208

Plato, 162–163

plosives, 12–13, 208

plural ending inflection, 53–54

plural markings, on nouns, 61–62

post-alveolar, 10, 208

postpositions, 172–173

pragmatics, 3, 105–117, 209

implicatures, 109–115

speech acts, 105–109

predicate, 92, 209

predicate logic, 92–97, 189, 209

quantification and, 92–93

quantifiers, 94–96

prepositions, 60, 172–173

prestige, 143

covert, 144–146, 194

low, 143, 203

overt, 144–146, 207

pronouns, 57–58

pronunciation, 17, 143

proposition, 87, 90, 115–116, 209

propositional logic, 87–92, 209

connectives and, 88

limits of, 91–92

Proto West Germanic, 122–123

Latin and, 124–126

Proto Indo European and, 125–126, 128–129

Proto Germanic

correspondences, 126–128

English and, 121–122

Proto Indo European, 125–126, 209

comparative reconstruction, 134–135

Grimm’s Law and, 130–131

numerals, 130

Proto West Germanic and, 125–126, 128–129

word order in, 137

proto-language, 133–134, 209

p-sounds, 28–30

PS-rules. See phrase-structure rules

psycholinguistics, 3–4, 151–168, 210

aphasia, 151–155

first-language acquisition, 155–167

I-language and, 156

quantification, 93, 210

first-language acquisition and, 161

predicate logic and, 92–93

scalar implicature and, 114–115

quantifiers, 92–96, 210

compositional semantics and, 102–103

existential, 94–96, 196

universal, 96, 218

questions, 108

racial prejudice, 149–150

reasoning, implicature and, 109–110

Received Pronunciation (RP), 142–143

recursion, 79–80, 210

reference, 83–86, 211

relative clauses, 71, 211

rhotic, 143, 211

rhoticity, 143–145, 211

Romance languages, correspondences of, 123–124

root, 48, 211

round, 35

rounded vowels, 17–18, 33, 212

RP. See Received Pronunciation

rule, 212. See also phonological rules; phrase-structure rules

Sanskrit, 125, 132–133

scalar implicature, 113–115

schwa, 20, 212

Second Germanic Sound Shift, 129–130

semantics, 2–3, 81–104, 212

compositional, 97–103, 192

definition of, 82

logic and, 86–97

meaning and truth in, 81–86

pragmatics and, 3

truth-conditional, 85, 217

semi-vowels, 24–25, 32, 36–37, 212

sense, 84–86, 213

sentence meaning, 84–86, 105, 213

reference and, 85–86

truth and, 85–86

sentences

constative, 106

first-language acquisition and, 160

performative, 106

proposition, utterance and, 115–116

PS-rules generating infinite number of, 78–80

subject, verb, object elements of, 169–172

unlimited possibilities of, 64–65

short vowels, 19–20, 213

lax, 19–20

schwa, 20

tense, 19–20

sign, 5

Sign Languages, 2–3, 213

social class, 145–147

social stratification of speech, 142–145

social value, 143, 213

sociolinguistics, 3–4, 139–150, 213

accents, 139–142

morphology and, 146–147

negation in non-standard English and, 145–150

social stratification of speech and, 142–145

Socrates, 163

soft palate, 11, 214. See also velum

sonorant, 16, 36–37, 214

sound laws, 131

Grimm’s Law, 129, 132–133

Verner’s Law, 132–133

sounds, 2–3. See also systematic sound

changes, 133, 145, 214

meaning and, 45–46

p-, 28–30

phonemes compared with, 28–29

systematic sound changes, 126–133

Spanish, correspondence in Romance languages, 123–124

spectrogram, stop consonants, 11–12

speech acts, 105–109, 214

felicity conditions of, 106–108, 197

indirect, 112–113

performatives and, 106

perlocutionary effects of, 106–108

speech communities, 82

speech organs, 6–9, 206, 214

spelling, pronunciation compared with, 17

statistical learning, 166–167

stop consonants, 11–16, 187, 189, 214

alveolar, 13

bilateral, 12–13

glottal, 9, 13

spectrogram, 11–12

velar, 13

stresses, 49–50, 132–133

structure, 44, 165–166. See also constituent structure; phrase-structure rules

dependency, 177–178, 215

syntactic, 99–100

of words, 52

subject, 58, 67, 187, 215

in sentences, 169–172

subjunctive, 56–57, 215

substantive universals, 176–178

suffix, 47–48, 215

syllabic, 35

syllable, 24, 35, 215

syntactic rules, 65, 74–80, 215

syntactic structure, 99–100

syntax, 2–3, 63–80, 186–187, 215

Broca’s aphasia and, 152–153

categories, 66–70

comparative reconstruction of, 136–137

constituent structure and, 70–74

functional categories, 69–70

lexical categories, 66–67

synthetic compounds, 50–51, 215–216

systematic sound

changes, 126–133

correspondence, 121–124

tense, 19–20, 189, 216. See also specific tenses

terminal node, 72–73, 216

Theory of Mind, 110–111, 216

tones, 60–61, 186–187, 216

tongue, 17–18, 20

blade, 10, 190

tree diagrams, 72–74, 216

Trudgill, Peter, 145–146

truth, 86

logic and, 86–87

meaning and, 87

sentence meaning and, 85–86

truth conditions, 85, 217

truth tables, 88, 217

truth values, 97–102, 217

truth-conditional semantics, 85, 217

truth-functional, 88, 217

truth-functional connectives, 88

conjunction, 88–89

disjunction, 89

equivalence, 90–91

implication, 90

negation, 88

type theory, 97–102, 217–218

typology, language, 3–4, 169–180, 202

underlying form, 41–42, 218

universal categories, 177

Universal Grammar, 167–168, 218

subject, object, verb sentence elements and, 171

word order and, 179

universal quantifiers, 96, 218

universal statements, 114

universals, 169–180

controversy about, 179–180

formal, 176–178

implicational, 172–176, 200

substantive, 176–178

word order and, 177–178

unrounded vowels, 17–18, 33, 218

unsaid, 105

Uralic languages, 135

utterance, 115–116, 160

variables, 94, 100, 218

velar fricatives, 11

velar nasal, 14

velar stops, 13

velarised phoneme, 30–31

velum, 11, 189–190, 218–219

verb, 169–172, 176–177

phrases, 68, 71

Verner, Karl, 132–133

Verner’s Law, 132–133

VO languages, 137

vocabulary, first-language acquisition and, 162

vocal folds, 9, 219

vocal tract, 7, 17, 219

voice, 35, 39–40

voiced, 219

post-alveolar fricatives, 10

velar fricatives, 11

voiceless

glottal fricative, 11

interdental fricatives, 10, 219

obstruent, 189

post-alveolar fricatives, 10

velar fricatives, 11

voicing, 8–9, 189, 219

assimilation, 38–39, 189

vocal folds and, 9

“vowel triangle,” 20

vowels, 7, 16–25, 187–188, 219

consonants compared with, 16

diphthongs, 21–24

distinctive features of, 36–37

long, 17–20, 203

natural classes of, 32–34

oral, 17

phonemes, 32

semi-, 24–25, 32, 36–37, 212

short, 19–20

syllable and, 24

Welsh, 175

Wernicke’s aphasia, 153–154, 188, 219–220

Wernicke’s area, 154–155, 220

Whitehead, Alfred North, 162–163

word order, 137, 176

in Indo-European languages, 137

Universal Grammar and, 179

universals and, 177–178

words, 45–62. See also complex words

English, 46

in first-language acquisition, 158–159

monosyllabic, 24

patterns and, 47

structure of, 52

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