Introduction

The preservation of natural areas was historically informed by the early environmentalism that led to the establishment of the world's first national parks in the late nineteenth century. These parks propagated a strict human–nature dichotomy as epitomized by the ‘Yellowstone model’ (Stevens 1997:285), calling for the eviction of resident communities to create areas of pristine wilderness. This model of nature conservation was adopted throughout the Western world and, by way of colonization, globally. Subsequent access and resource-use restrictions deprived communities of their livelihoods, while little was offered in terms of compensation or suitable alternatives. As a consequence many conservation areas are highly contested, harbouring long-lasting – and sometimes violent – conflicts between governments and conservationists on one side, and resource users and resident communities on the other.

With an increasing awareness of this dilemma, the global conservation discourse has undergone a prolonged shift since the 1970s. Alongside the main concern of environmental preservation, social justice emerged as an equally important piece of the puzzle of managing the world's conservation areas. This shift is by now well institutionalized both at a national and an international policy level. The principles laid out in the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD 1992) are among the most prominent and influential guidelines in shaping current conservation discourse. Alongside the objective of the conservation of biological diversity, the convention prioritizes sustainable use and benefit-sharing of natural resources, with an emphasis on the role played by local communities.