The origin and evolution of Titan

G. Tobie; J. I. Lunine; J. Monteux; O. Mousis; F. Nimmo

doi:10.1017/CBO9780511667398.004

1 - The origin and evolution of Titan

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 05 January 2014

G. Tobie ,

J. I. Lunine ,

J. Monteux ,

O. Mousis and

F. Nimmo

Edited by

Ingo Müller-Wodarg ,

Caitlin A. Griffith ,

Emmanuel Lellouch and

Thomas E. Cravens

Show author details

G. Tobie: Affiliation:
Université de Nantes
J. I. Lunine: Affiliation:
Cornell University
J. Monteux: Affiliation:
Université de Nantes
O. Mousis: Affiliation:
Université de Franche-Comté
F. Nimmo: Affiliation:
University of California
Ingo Müller-Wodarg: Affiliation:
Imperial College London
Caitlin A. Griffith: Affiliation:
University of Arizona
Emmanuel Lellouch: Affiliation:
Observatoire de Paris, Meudon
Thomas E. Cravens: Affiliation:
University of Kansas

Book contents

Get access

Summary

1.1 Introduction

Although Titan is similar in terms of mass and size to Jupiter's moons Ganymede and Callisto, it is different in that it is the only one harboring a massive atmosphere. Moreover, unlike the Jovian system, which is populated with four large moons, Titan is the only large moon around Saturn. The other Saturnian moons are much smaller and have an average density at least 25 percent less than Titan's uncompressed density and much below the density expected for a solar composition (Johnson and Lunine, 2005), although with a large variation from satellite to satellite. Both Jupiter's and Saturn's moon systems are thought to have formed in a disk around the growing giant planet. However, the difference in architecture between the two systems probably reflects different disk characteristics and evolution (e.g., Sasaki et al., 2010), and, in the case of Saturn, possibly the catastrophic loss of one or more Titan-sized moons (Canup, 2010). Moreover, the presence of a massive atmosphere on Titan, as well as the emission of gases from Enceladus' active south polar region (Waite et al., 2009), suggest that the primordial building blocks that comprise the Saturnian system were probably more volatile-rich than those of Jupiter.

The composition of the present-day atmosphere, dominated by nitrogen, with a few percent methane and lesser amounts of other species, probably does not directly reflect the composition of the primordial building blocks and is rather the result of complex evolutionary processes involving internal chemistry and outgassing, impact cratering, photochemistry, escape, crustal storage and recycling, and other processes.

Type: Chapter
Information: Titan
Interior, Surface, Atmosphere, and Space Environment
, pp. 29 - 62

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511667398.004 [Opens in a new window]

Publisher: Cambridge University Press

Print publication year: 2014

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Agnor, C. B., Canup, R. M., and Levison, H. F. 1999. On the Character and Consequences of Large Impacts in the Late Stage of Terrestrial Planet Formation. Icarus, 142, 219–237. doi: 10.1006/icar.1999.6201.Google Scholar

Alibert, Y., and Mousis, O. 2007. Formation of Titan in Saturn's Subnebula: Constraints from Huygens Probe Measurements. Astron. Astrophys., 465, 1051–1060. doi: 10.1051/0004-6361:20066402.Google Scholar

Alibert, Y., Mousis, O., and Benz, W. 2005a. Modeling the Jovian Subnebula. I. Thermodynamic Conditions and Migration of Proto-satellites. Astron. Astrophys., 439, 1205–1213. doi: 10.1051/0004-6361:20052841.Google Scholar

Alibert, Y., Mousis, O., Mordasini, C., and Benz, W. 2005b. New Jupiter and Saturn Formation Models Meet Observations. Astroph. J., 626, L57–L60. doi: 10.1086/431325.Google Scholar

Allègre, C. J., Hofmann, A., and O'Nions, K. 1996. The Argon Constraints on Mantle Structure. Geophys. Res. Lett., 23, 3555–3558. doi: 10.1029/96GL03373.Google Scholar

Anderson, J. D., Lau, E. L., Sjogren, W. L., Schubert, G., et al. 1996. Gravitational Constraints on the Internal Structure of Ganymede. Nature, 384, 541–543. doi: 10.1038/384541a0.Google Scholar

Anderson, J. D., Jacobson, R. A., McElrath, T. P., Moore, W. B., et al. 2001. Shape, Mean Radius, Gravity Field, and Interior Structure of Callisto. Icarus, 153, 157–161. doi: 10.1006/icar.2001.6664.Google Scholar

Artemieva, N., and Lunine, J. 2003. Cratering on Titan: Impact Melt, Ejecta, and the Fate of Surface Organics. Icarus, 164, 471–480. doi: 10.1016/S0019-1035(03)00148-9.Google Scholar

Artemieva, N., and Lunine, J. I. 2005. Impact Cratering on Titan II. Global Melt, Escaping Ejecta, and Aqueous Alteration of Surface Organics. Icarus, 175, 522–533. doi: 10.1016/j.icarus.2004.12.005.Google Scholar

Asplund, M., Grevesse, N., Sauval, A. J., and Scott, P. 2009. The Chemical Composition of the Sun. Ann. Rev. Astron. Astroph., 47, 481–522. doi: 10.1146/annurev.astro.46.060407.145222.Google Scholar

Atreya, S. K., Donahue, T. M., and Kuhn, W. R. 1978. Evolution of a Nitrogen Atmosphere on Titan. Science, 201, 611–613. doi: 10.1126/science.201.4356.611.Google Scholar

Atreya, S. K., Adams, E. Y., Niemann, H. B., Demick-Montelara, J. E., et al. 2006. Titan's Methane Cycle. Planet. Space Sci., 54, 1177–1187. doi: 10.1016/j.pss.2006.05.028.Google Scholar

Baland, R.-M., van Hoolst, T., Yseboodt, M., and Karatekin, Ö. 2011. Titan's Obliquity as Evidence of a Subsurface Ocean?Astron. Astrophys., 530, A141. doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201116578.Google Scholar

Barr, A. C., and Canup, R. M. 2010. Origin of the Ganymede-Callisto Dichotomy by Impacts During the Late Heavy Bombardment. Nature Geoscience, 3, 164–167. doi: 10.1038/ngeo746.Google Scholar

Barr, A. C., and McKinnon, W. B. 2007. Convection in Enceladus' Ice Shell: Conditions for Initiation. Geophys. Res. Lett., 340, L09202. doi:10.1029/2006GL028799.Google Scholar

Barr, A. C., Citron, R. I., and Canup, R. M. 2010. Origin of a Partially Differentiated Titan. Icarus, 209, 858–862. doi: 10.1016/j.icarus.2010.05.028.Google Scholar

Béghin, C., Simões, F., Krasnoselskikh, V, Schwingenschuh, K. e al. 2007. A Schumann-Like Resonance on Titan Driven by Saturn's Magnetosphere Possibly Revealed by the Huygens Probe. Icarus, 191, 251–266. doi: 10.1016/j.icarus.2007.04.005.Google Scholar

Béghin, C., Canu, P., Karkoschka, E., Sotin, C., et al. 2009. New Insights on Titan's Plasma-Driven Schumann Resonance Inferred from Huygens and Cassini data. Planet. Space. Sci., 57, 1872–1888. doi: 10.1016/j.pss.2009.04.006.Google Scholar

Béghin, C., Sotin, C., and Hamelin, M. 2010. Titan's Native Ocean Revealed Beneath Some 45 km of Ice by a Schumann-Like Resonance. Comptes Rendus Geoscience, 342, 425–433. doi: 10.1016/j.crte.2010.03.003.Google Scholar

Bills, B. G., and Nimmo, F. 2011. Rotational Dynamics and Internal Structure of Titan. Icarus, 214, 351–355. doi: 10.1016/j.icarus.2011.04.028.Google Scholar

Boss, A. P. 1997. Giant Planet Formation by Gravitational Instability. Science, 276, 1836–1839. doi: 10.1126/science.276.5320.1836.Google Scholar

Boss, A. P. 2005. Collapse and Fragmentation of Molecular Cloud Cores. VIII. Magnetically Supported Infinite Sheets. Astroph. J., 622, 393–403. doi: 10.1086/428113.Google Scholar

Brown, R. H., Soderblom, L. A., Soderblom, J. M., Clark, R. N., et al. 2008. The Identification of Liquid Ethane in Titan's Ontario Lacus. Nature, 454, 607–610. doi: 10.1038/nature07100.Google Scholar

Cameron, A. G. W. 1978. Physics of the Primitive Solar Accretion Disk. Moon and Planets, 18, 5–40. doi: 10.1007/BF00896696.Google Scholar

Canup, R. M. 2010. Origin of Saturn's Rings and Inner Moons by Mass Removal from a Lost Titan-Sized satellite. Nature, 468, 943–926. doi: 10.1038/nature09661.Google Scholar

Canup, R. M., and Ward, W. R. 2002. Formation of the Galilean Satellites: Conditions of Accretion. Astron. J., 124, 3404–3423. doi: 10.1086/344684.Google Scholar

Canup, R. M., and Ward, W. R. 2006. A Common Mass Scaling for Satellite Systems of Gaseous Planets. Nature, 441, 834–839. doi: 10.1038/nature04860.Google Scholar

Canup, R. M., and Ward, W. R. 2009. Origin of Europa and the Galilean Satellites. In: Pappalardo et al. (2009).

Castillo-Rogez, J. C., and Lunine, J. I. 2010. Evolution of Titan's Rocky Core Constrained by Cassini Observations. Geophys. Res. Lett., 37, L20205. doi: 10.1029/2010GL044398.Google Scholar

Charnoz, S., Crida, A., Castillo-Rogez, J. C., Lainey, V., et al. 2011. Accretion of Saturn's Mid-Sized Moons during the Viscous Spreading of Young Massive Rings: Solving the Paradox of Silicate-Poor Rings versus Silicate-Rich Moons. Icarus, 216, 535–550. doi: 10.1016/j.icarus.2011.09.017.Google Scholar

Choukroun, M., and Sotin, C. 2012. Is Titan's Shape Caused by its Meteorology and Carbon Cycle?Geophys. Res. Lett., 39(Feb.), 4201. doi: 10.1029/2011GL050747.Google Scholar

Choukroun, M., Grasset, O., Tobie, G., and Sotin, C. 2010. Stability of Methane Clathrate Hydrates under Pressure: Influence on Outgassing Processes of Methane on Titan. Icarus, 205, 581–593. doi: 10.1016/j.icarus.2009.08.011.Google Scholar

Choukroun, M., Kieffer, S. W., Lu, X., and Tobie, G. 2013. Clathrate Hydrates: Implications for Exchange Processes in the Outer Solar System. Gudipati, M., and Castillo-Rogez, J. C. (eds.), The Science of Solar System Ices, 3rd ed. Springer-Verlag, New York, P. 409.

Coradini, A., Cerroni, P., Magni, G., and Federico, C. 1989. Formation of the Satellites of the Outer Solar System -Sources of Their Atmospheres. Atreya, S. K., Pollack, J. B., and Matthews, M. S. (eds.), Origin and Evolution of Planetary and Satellite Atmospheres. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, pp. 723–762.

Cordier, D., Mousis, O., Lunine, J. I., Lavvas, P., et al. 2009. An Estimate of the Chemical Composition of Titan's Lakes. Astroph. J., 707, L128–L131. doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/707/2/L128.Google Scholar

Cordier, D., Mousis, O., Lunine, J. I., Lebonnois, S., et al. 2010. About the Possible Role of Hydrocarbon Lakes in the Origin of Titan's Noble Gas Atmospheric Depletion. Astroph. J., 721, L117–L120. doi: 10.1088/2041-8205/721/2/L117.Google Scholar

Croft, S. K. 1982. A First-Order Estimate of Shock Heating and Vaporization in Oceanic Impacts. In Silver, T. L., and Schultz, P. H. (eds.), Geological Implications of Impacts of Large Asteroids and Comets on Earth, vol. 190. Spec. Pap. Geol. Soc. Am.

Deschamps, F., Mousis, O., Sanchez-Valle, C., and Lunine, J. I. 2010. The Role of Methanol in the Crystallization of Titan's Primordial Ocean. Astroph. J., 724, 887–894. doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/724/2/887.Google Scholar

Engel, S., and Lunine, J. I. 1994. Silicate Interactions with Ammonia-Water Fluids on Early Titan. J. Geophys. Res., 99, 3745–3752. doi: 10.1029/93JE03433.Google Scholar

Estrada, P. R., and Mosqueira, I. 2006. A Gas-Poor Planetesimal Capture Model for the Formation of Giant Planet Satellite Systems. Icarus, 181, 486–509. doi: 10.1016/j.icarus.2005.11.006.CrossRef Google Scholar

Estrada, P. R., and Mosqueira, I. 2011. Titan's Accretion and Long Term Thermal History. Lunar and Planetary Institute Science Conference Abstracts. Lunar and Planetary Inst. Technical Report, vol. 42, p. 1679.Google Scholar

Estrada, P. R., Mosqueira, I., Lissauer, J. J., D'Angelo, G., et al. 2009. Formation of Jupiter and Conditions for Accretion of the Galilean Satellites. In Pappalardo et al. (2009).

Fortes, A. D. 2012. Titan's Internal Structure and the Evolutionary Consequences. Planet. Space Sci., 60(Jan.), 10–17. doi: 10.1016/j.pss.2011.04.010.Google Scholar

Fortes, A. D., Grindrod, P. M., Trickett, S. K., and Vocadlo, L. 2007. Ammonium Sulfate on Titan: Possible Origin and Role in Cryovolcanism. Icarus, 188, 139–153. doi: 10.1016/j.icarus.2006.11.002.Google Scholar

Friedson, A. J., and Stevenson, D. J. 1983. Viscosity of Rock-Ice Mixtures and Applications to the Evolution of Icy Satellites. Icarus, 56, 1–14. doi: 10.1016/0019-1035(83)90124-0.Google Scholar

Gautier, D., Hersant, F., Mousis, O., and Lunine, J. I. 2001. Enrichments in Volatiles in Jupiter: A New Interpretation of the Galileo Measurements. Astrophys. J, 550, L227–L230. doi: 10.1086/319648.Google Scholar

Glein, C. R., Zolotov, M. Y., and Shock, E. L. 2008. The Oxidation State of Hydrothermal Systems on Early Enceladus. Icarus, 197, 157–163. doi: 10.1016/j.icarus.2008.03.021.Google Scholar

Glein, C. R., Desch, S. J., and Shock, E. L. 2009. The Absence of Endogenic Methane on Titan and Its Implications for the Origin of Atmospheric Nitrogen. Icarus, 204, 637–644. doi: 10.1016/j.icarus.2009.06.020.Google Scholar

Goldreich, P., and Ward, W. R. 1973. The Formation of Planetesimals. Astroph. J., 183, 1051–1062. doi: 10.1086/152291.Google Scholar

Grasset, O., and Pargamin, J. 2005. The Ammonia-Water System at High Pressures: Implications for the Methane of Titan. Planet. Space Sci., 53, 371–384.Google Scholar

Grasset, O., and Sotin, C. 1996. The Cooling Rate of a Liquid Shell in Titan's Interior. Icarus, 123, 101–112.Google Scholar

Grindrod, P. M., Fortes, A. D., Nimmo, F., Feltham, D. L., et al. 2008. The Long-Term Stability of a Possible Aqueous Ammonium Sulfate Ocean Inside Titan. Icarus, 197, 137–151. doi: 10.1016/j.icarus.2008.04.006.Google Scholar

Hayes, A., Aharonson, O., Callahan, P., Elachi, C., et al. 2008. Hydrocarbon Lakes on Titan: Distribution and Interaction with a Porous Regolith. Geophys. Res. Lett., 35, L09204. doi: 10.1029/2008GL033409.CrossRef Google Scholar

Helled, R., and Bodenheimer, P. 2010. Metallicity of the Massive Protoplanets around HR 8799 If Formed by Gravitational Instability. Icarus, 207, 503–508. doi: 10.1016/j.icarus.2009.11.023.Google Scholar

Hersant, F., Gautier, D., Tobie, G., and Lunine, J. I. 2008. Interpretation of the Carbon Abundance in Saturn Measured by Cassini. Planet. Space Sci., 56, 1103–1111.Google Scholar

Hubickyj, O., Bodenheimer, P., and Lissauer, J. J. 2005. Accretion of the Gaseous Envelope of Jupiter around a 5 10 Earth-Mass Core. Icarus, 179, 415–431. doi: 10.1016/j.icarus.2005.06.021.Google Scholar

Hutchins, K. S., and Jakosky, B. M. 1996. Evolution of Martian Atmospheric Argon: Implications for Sources of Volatiles. J. Geophys. Res., 101, 14933–14950. doi: 10.1029/96JE00860.Google Scholar

Iess, L., Rappaport, N. J., Jacobson, R. A., Racioppa, P., et al. 2010. Gravity Field, Shape, and Moment of Inertia of Titan. Science, 327, 1367–1369. doi: 10.1126/science.1182583.CrossRef Google Scholar

Iess, L., Jacobson, R. A., Ducci, M., Stevenson, D. J., et al. 2012. The Tides of Titan. Science, 337, 457–459, doi:10.1126/science.1219631.Google Scholar

Ishimaru, R., Sekine, Y., Matsui, T., and Mousis, O. 2011. Oxidizing Proto-Atmosphere on Titan: Constraint from N2 Formation by Impact Shock. Astroph. J. Lett., 741, L10. doi: 10.1088/2041-8205/741/1/L10.Google Scholar

Jacovi, R., and Bar-Nun, A. 2008. Removal of Titan's Noble Gases by Their Trapping in Its Haze. Icarus, 196, 302–304. doi: 10.1016/j.icarus.2008.02.014.Google Scholar

Johnson, T. V, and Lunine, J. I. 2005. Saturn's Moon Phoebe as a Captured Body from the Outer Solar System. Nature, 435, 69–71. doi: 10.1038/nature03384.Google Scholar

Jones, T. D., and Lewis, J. S. 1987. Estimated Impact Shock Production of N2 and Organic Compounds on Early Titan. Icarus, 72, 381–393. doi: 10.1016/0019-1035(87)90181-3.CrossRef Google Scholar

Kargel, J. S. 1992. Ammonia-Water Volcanism on Icy Satellites – Phase Relations at 1 Atmosphere. Icarus, 100, 556–574. doi: 10.1016/0019-1035(92)90118-Q.Google Scholar

Kaula, W. M. 1979. Thermal Evolution of Earth and Moon Growing by Planetesimal Impacts. J. Geophys. Res., 84, 999–1008. doi: 10.1029/JB084iB03p00999.Google Scholar

Kaula, W. M. 1999. Constraints on Venus Evolution from Radiogenic Argon. Icarus, 139, 32–39. doi: 10.1006/icar.1999.6082.Google Scholar

Khurana, K. K., Kivelson, M. G., Stevenson, D. J., Schubert, G., et al. 1998. Induced Magnetic Fields as Evidence for Subsurface Oceans in Europa and Callisto. Nature, 395, 777–780. doi: 10.1038/27394.Google Scholar

Khurana, K. K., Jia, X., Kivelson, M. G., Nimmo, F., et al. 2011. Evidence of a Global Magma Ocean in Io's Interior. Science, 332, 1186–1189. doi: 10.1126/science.1201425.Google Scholar

Kirk, R. L., and Stevenson, D. J. 1987. Thermal Evolution of a Differentiated Ganymede and Implications for Surface Features. Icarus, 69, 91–134.Google Scholar

Kivelson, M. G., Khurana, K. K., and Volwerk, M. 2002. The Permanent and Inductive Magnetic Moments of Ganymede. Icarus, 157, 507–522. doi: 10.1006/icar.2002.6834.Google Scholar

Kokubo, E., and Ida, S. 1996. On Runaway Growth of Planetesimals. Icarus, 123, 180–191. doi: 10.1006/icar.1996.0148.Google Scholar

Korycansky, D. G., and Zahnle, K. J. 2011. Titan Impacts and Escape. Icarus, 211, 707–721. doi: 10.1016/j.icarus.2010.09.013.Google Scholar

Kossacki, K. J., and Lorenz, R. D. 1996. Hiding Titan's Ocean: Densification and Hydrocarbon Storage in an Icy Regolith. Planet. Space Sci., 44, 1029–1037.Google Scholar

Kuramoto, K., and Matsui, T. 1994. Formation of a Hot Proto-Atmosphere on the Accreting Giant Icy Satellite: Implications for the Origin and Evolution of Titan, Ganymede, and Callisto. J. Geophys. Res., 99, 21,183-21,200. doi: 10.1029/94JE01864.Google Scholar

Lainey, V, Karatekin, O, Desmars, J., Charnoz, S., et al. 2011. Strong Tidal Dissipation in Saturn and Constraints on Enceladus' Thermal State from Astrometry. Astroph. J., 752 doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/752/1/14.Google Scholar

Lewis, J. S., and Prinn, R. G. 1980. Kinetic Inhibition of CO and N2 Reduction in the Solar Nebula. Astroph. J., 238, 357–364. doi: 10.1086/157992.CrossRef Google Scholar

Lide, D. R. (ed.). 2004. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: A Ready-Reference Book of Chemical and Physical Data. 85th ed. Boca Raton, London, New York, Washington, D.C.: CRC Press.

Lissauer, J. J., and Safronov, V. S. 1991. The Random Component of Planetary Rotation. Icarus, 93, 288–297. doi: 10.1016/0019-1035(91)90213-D.Google Scholar

Lorenz, R. D., McKay, C. P., and Lunine, J. I. 1997a. Photochemically-Induced Collapse of Titan's Atmosphere. Science, 275, 642–644.Google Scholar

Lorenz, R. D., Lunine, J. I., and McKay, C. P. 1997b. Titan under a Red Giant Sun: A New Kind of “Habitable” Moon. Geophys. Res. Lett., 24, 2905. doi: 10.1029/97GL52843.Google Scholar

Lorenz, R. D., Mitchell, K. L., Kirk, R. L., and the Cassini RADAR team. 2008a. Titan's Inventory of Organic Surface Materials. Geophys. Res. Lett., 35, L02206.Google Scholar

Lorenz, R. D., Stiles, B. W., Kirk, R. L., Allison, M. D., et al. 2008b. Titan's Rotation Reveals an Internal Ocean and Changing Zonal Winds. Science, 319, 1649–1652. doi: 10.1126/science.1151639.Google Scholar

Lunine, J., Choukroun, M., Stevenson, D., and Tobie, G. 2009. The Origin and Evolution of Titan. In Brown, R. H., Lebreton, J.-P., and Waite, J. H. (eds.), Titan from Cassini-Huygens. Springer, pp. 35–59. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4020-9215-2_3.CrossRef

Lunine, J. I. 2010. Titan and Habitable Planets around M-Dwarfs. Faraday Discussions, 147, 405. doi: 10.1039/c004788k.Google Scholar

Lunine, J. I., and Stevenson, D. J. 1985. Thermodynamics of Clathrate Hydrate at Low and High Pressures with Application to the Outer Solar System. Astrophys. J. Suppl., 58, 493–531.Google Scholar

Lunine, J. I., and Stevenson, D. J. 1987. Clathrate and Ammonia Hydrates at High Pressure – Application to the Origin of Methane on Titan. Icarus, 70, 61–77.Google Scholar

Lunine, J. I., Stevenson, D. J., and Yung, Y. L. 1983. Ethane Ocean on Titan. Science, 222, 1229–1231.Google Scholar

Lunine, J. I., Artemieva, N., and Tobie, G. 2010. Impact Cratering on Titan: Hydrocarbons versus Water. In Lunar and Planetary Institute Science Conference Abstracts, p. 1533.Google Scholar

Mackenzie, R. A., Iess, L., Tortora, P., and Rappaport, N. J. 2008. A Non-Hydrostatic Rhea. Geophys. Res. Lett., 350, L05204. doi: 10.1029/2007GL032898.Google Scholar

Mandt, K. E., Waite, J. H., Lewis, W., Magee, B., et al. 2009. Isotopic Evolution of the Major Constituents of Titan's Atmosphere Based on Cassini Data. Planet. Space Sci., 57, 1917–1930. doi: 10.1016/j.pss.2009.06.005.Google Scholar

Marboeuf, U., Mousis, O., Ehrenreich, D., Alibert, Y., et al. 2008. Composition of Ices in Low-Mass Extrasolar Planets. Astroph. J., 681, 1624–1630. doi: 10.1086/588777.Google Scholar

Matson, D. L., Castillo, J. C., Lunine, J., and Johnson, T. V. 2007. Enceladus' Plume: Compositional Evidence for a Hot Interior. Icarus, 187, 569–573. doi: 10.1016/j.icarus.2006.10.016.Google Scholar

McCord, T. B., Hayne, P., Combe, J.-P., Hansen, G. B., et al. and The Cassini VIMS Team. 2008. Titan's Surface: Search for Spectral Diversity and Composition Using the Cassini VIMS Investigation. Icarus, 194, 212–242. doi: 10.1016/j.icarus.2007.08.039.Google Scholar

McKay, C. P., Scattergood, T. W., Pollack, J. B., Borucki, W. J., etal. 1988. High-Temperature Shock Formation of N2 and Organics on Primordial Titan. Nature, 332, 520–522. doi: 10.1038/332520a0.Google Scholar

McKay, C. P., Pollack, J. B., Lunine, J. I., and Courtin, R. 1993. Coupled Atmosphere-Ocean Models of Titan's Past. Icarus, 102, 88–98. doi: 10.1006/icar.1993.1034.CrossRef Google Scholar

McKinnon, W. B. 2010. Radiogenic Argon Release from Titan: Sources, Efficiency, and Role of the Ocean (Invited). AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts, P22A-01.Google Scholar

Mitri, G., and Showman, A. P. 2008. Thermal Convection in Ice-I Shells of Titan and Enceladus. Icarus, 193, 387–396. doi: 10.1016/j.icarus.2007.07.016.Google Scholar

Mitri, G., Showman, A. P., Lunine, J. I., and Lorenz, R. D. 2007. Hydrocarbon Lakes on Titan. Icarus, 186, 385–394. doi: 10.1016/j.icarus.2006.09.004.Google Scholar

Monteux, J., Coltice, N., Dubuffet, F., and Ricard, Y. 2007. Thermo-Mechanical Adjustment after Impacts during Planetary Growth. Geophys. Res. Lett., 342, L24201. doi: 10.1029/2007GL031635.Google Scholar

Monteux, J., Ricard, Y., Coltice, N., Dubuffet, F., et al. 2009. A Model of Metal-Silicate Separation on Growing Planets. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 287, 353–362. doi: 10.1016/j.epsl.2009.08.020.Google Scholar

Moore, J. M., and Pappalardo, R. T. 2011. Titan: An Exogenic World?Icarus, 212, 790–806. doi: 10.1016/j.icarus.2011.01.019.Google Scholar

Mordasini, C., Alibert, Y., and Benz, W. 2009. Extrasolar Planet Population Synthesis. I. Method, Formation Tracks, and Mass-Distance Distribution. Astron. Astroph., 501, 1139–1160. doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/200810301.Google Scholar

Mosqueira, I., and Estrada, P. R. 2003a. Formation of the Regular Satellites of Giant Planets in an Extended Gaseous Nebula I: Subnebula Model and Accretion of Satellites. Icarus, 163, 198–231. doi: 10.1016/S0019-1035(03)00076-9.Google Scholar

Mosqueira, I., and Estrada, P. R. 2003b. Formation of the Regular Satellites of Giant Planets in an Extended Gaseous Nebula II: Satellite Migration and Survival. Icarus, 163, 232–255. doi: 10.1016/S0019-1035(03)00077-0.Google Scholar

Mousis, O., and Alibert, Y. 2006. Modeling the Jovian Subnebula. II. Composition of Regular Satellite Ices. Astron. Astrophys., 448, 771–778. doi: 10.1051/0004-6361:20053211.Google Scholar

Mousis, O., and Schmitt, B. 2008. Sequestration of Ethane in the Cryovolcanic Subsurface of Titan. Astrophys. J., 677, L67-L70. doi: 10.1086/587141.Google Scholar

Mousis, O., Alibert, Y., and Benz, W. 2006. Saturn's Internal Structure and Carbon Enrichment. Astron. Astroph., 449, 411–415. doi: 10.1051/0004-6361:20054224.Google Scholar

Mousis, O., Lunine, J. I., Pasek, M., Cordier, D., et al. 2009a. A Primordial Origin for the Atmospheric Methane of Saturn's Moon Titan. Icarus, 204, 749–751. doi: 10.1016/j.icarus.2009.07.040.Google Scholar

Mousis, O., Lunine, J. I., Thomas, C., Pasek, M., et al. 2009b. Clathration of Volatiles in the Solar Nebula and Implications for the Origin of Titan's Atmosphere. Astrophys. J., 691, 1780–1786. doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/691/2/1780.Google Scholar

Mousis, O., Marboeuf, U., Lunine, J. I., Alibert, Y., et al. 2009c. Determination of the Minimum Masses of Heavy Elements in the Envelopes of Jupiter and Saturn. Astroph. J., 696, 1348–1354. doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/696/2/1348.Google Scholar

Mousis, O., Lunine, J. I., Picaud, S., and Cordier, D. 2010. Volatile Inventories in Clathrate Hydrates Formed in the Primordial Nebula. Faraday Discussions, 147, 509. doi: 10.1039/c003658g.Google Scholar

Mousis, O., Lunine, J. I., Picaud, S., Cordier, D., et al. 2011. Removal of Titan's Atmospheric Noble Gases by Their Sequestration in Surface Clathrates. Astroph. J., 740, L9. doi: 10.1088/2041-8205/740/1/L9.Google Scholar

Mueller, S., and McKinnon, W. B. 1988. Three-Layered Models of Ganymede and Callisto – Compositions, Structures, and Aspects of Evolution. Icarus, 76, 437–464. doi: 10.1016/0019-1035(88)90014-0.CrossRef Google Scholar

Nagel, K., Breuer, D., and Spohn, T. 2004. A Model for the Interior Structure, Evolution, and Differentiation of Callisto. Icarus, 169, 402–412. doi: 10.1016/j.icarus.2003.12.019.Google Scholar

Niemann, H. B., Atreya, S. K., and the Huygens GCMS team. 2005. The Abundances of Constituents of Titan's Atmosphere from the GCMS Instrument on the Huygens Probe. Nature, 438, 779–784. doi: 10.1038/nature04122.CrossRef Google Scholar

Niemann, H. B., Atreya, S. K., Demick, J. E., Gautier, D., et al. 2010. Composition of Titan's Lower Atmosphere and Simple Surface Volatiles as Measured by the Cassini-Huygens Probe Gas Chromatograph Mass Spectrometer Experiment. J. Geophys. Res., 115(E14), E12006. doi: 10.1029/2010JE003659.Google Scholar

Nimmo, F., and Bills, B. G. 2010. Shell Thickness Variations and the Long-Wavelength Topography of Titan. Icarus, 208, 896–904. doi: 10.1016/j.icarus.2010.02.020.CrossRef Google Scholar

Ojakangas, G. W., and Stevenson, D. J. 1989. Thermal State of an Ice Shell on Europa. Icarus, 81, 220–241. doi: 10.1016/0019-1035(89)90052-3.Google Scholar

O'Rourke, J. G., and Stevenson, D. J. 2011. Stability of Ice/Rock Mixtures with Application to Titan. Lunar and Planetary Institute Science Conference Abstracts. Lunar and Planetary Inst. Technical Report, vol. 42, p. 1629.Google Scholar

Osegovic, J. P., and Max, M. D. 2005. Compound Clathrate Hydrate on Titan's Surface. J. Geophys. Res., 110(E9), 8004. doi: 10.1029/2005JE002435.Google Scholar

Owen, T. 1982. The Composition and Origin of Titan's Atmosphere. Planet. Space Sci., 30, 833–838.Google Scholar

Papaloizou, J. C. B., and Terquem, C. 1999. Critical Protoplanetary Core Masses in Protoplanetary Disks and the Formation of Short-Period Giant Planets. Astroph. J., 521, 823–838. doi: 10.1086/307581.Google Scholar

Pappalardo, R. T., McKinnon, W. B., and Khurana, K. (eds.). 2009. Europa. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.

Pasek, M. A., Milsom, J. A., Ciesla, F. J., Lauretta, D. S., et al. 2005. Sulfur Chemistry with Time-Varying Oxygen Abundance during Solar System Formation. Icarus, 175, 1–14. doi: 10.1016/j.icarus.2004.10.012.Google Scholar

Peale, S. J. 1969. Generalized Cassini's Laws. Astron. J., 74, 483–489. doi: 10.1086/110825.Google Scholar

Pierazzo, E., Vickery, A. M., and Melosh, H. J. 1997. A Reevaluation of Impact Melt Production. Icarus, 127, 408–423. doi: 10.1006/icar.1997.5713.Google Scholar

Pollack, J. B., Hubickyj, O., Bodenheimer, P., Lissauer, J. J., et al. 1996. Formation of the Giant Planets by Concurrent Accretion of Solids and Gas. Icarus, 124, 62–85. doi: 10.1006/icar.1996.0190.CrossRef Google Scholar

Rappaport, N., Bertotti, B., Giampieri, G., and Anderson, J. D. 1997. Doppler Measurements of the Quadrupole Moments of Titan. Icarus, 126, 313–323. doi: 10.1006/icar.1996.5661.CrossRef Google Scholar

Rappaport, N. J., Iess, L., Wahr, J., Lunine, J. I., et al. 2008. Can Cassini Detect a Subsurface Ocean in Titan from Gravity Measurements?Icarus, 194, 711–720. doi: 10.1016/j.icarus.2007.11.024.CrossRef Google Scholar

Ricard, Y., Sramek, O., and Dubuffet, F. 2009. A Multi-Phase Model of Runaway Core-Mantle Segregation in Planetary Embryos. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 284, 144–150. doi: 10.1016/j.epsl.2009.04.021.Google Scholar

Robuchon, G., Choblet, G., Tobie, G., Cadek, O., et al. 2010. Coupling of Thermal Evolution and Despinning of early Iapetus. Icarus, 207, 959–971. doi: 10.1016/j.icarus.2009.12.002.CrossRef Google Scholar

Safronov, V S. 1978. The Heating of the Earth during Its Formation. Icarus, 33, 3–12. doi: 10.1016/0019-1035(78)90019-2.Google Scholar

Safronov, V S. (ed.). 1969. Evoliutsiia doplanetnogo oblaka (English transl.: Evolution of the Protoplanetary Cloud and Formation of Earth and the Planets, NASA Tech. Transl. F-677, Jerusalem: Israel Sci. Transl. 1972). Moscow: Nauka.

Sasaki, T., Stewart, G. R., and Ida, S. 2010. Origin of the Different Architectures of the Jovian and Saturnian Satellite Systems. Astrophys. J., 714, 1052–1064. doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/714/2/1052.Google Scholar

Saumon, D., and Guillot, T. 2004. Shock Compression of Deuterium and the Interiors of Jupiter and Saturn. Astroph. J., 609, 1170–1180. doi: 10.1086/421257.CrossRef Google Scholar

Saur, J., Neubauer, F. M., and Glassmeier, K.-H. 2010. Induced Magnetic Fields in Solar System Bodies. Space Sci. Rev., 152, 391–421. doi: 10.1007/s11214-009-9581-y.Google Scholar

Schubert, G., Stevenson, D. J., and Ellsworth, K. 1981. Internal Structures of the Galilean Satellites. Icarus, 47, 46–59. doi: 10.1016/0019-1035(81)90090-7.CrossRef Google Scholar

Scott, H. P., Williams, Q., and Ryerson, F. J. 2002. Experimental Constraints on the Chemical Evolution of Large Icy Satellites. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 203, 399–412. doi: 10.1016/S0012-821X(02)00850-6.CrossRef Google Scholar

Sears, W. D. 1995. Tidal Dissipation in Oceans on Titan. Icarus, 113, 39–56. doi: 10.1006/icar. 1995.1004.Google Scholar

Sekine, Y., and Genda, H. 2012. Giant Impacts in the Saturnian System: A Possible Origin of Diversity in the Inner Mid-Sized Satellites. Planet. Space Sci., 63, 133–138. doi: 10.1016/j.pss.2011.05.015.Google Scholar

Sekine, Y., Genda, H., Sugita, S., Kadono, T., et al. 2011. Replacement and Late Formation of Atmospheric N2 on Undifferentiated Titan by Impacts. Nature Geos., 4, 359–362. doi: 10.1038/ngeo1147.Google Scholar

Senshu, H., Kuramoto, K., and Matsui, T. 2002. Thermal Evolution of a Growing Mars. J. Geophys. Res. (Planets), 107, 5118. doi: 10.1029/2001JE001819.Google Scholar

Simões, F., Grard, R., Hamelin, M., Lopez-Moreno, J. J., et al. 2007. A New Numerical Model for the Simulation of ELF Wave Propagation and the Computation of Eigenmodes in the Atmosphere of Titan: Did Huygens Observe any Schumann Resonance?Planet. Space Sci., 55, 1978–1989. doi: 10.1016/j.pss.2007.04.016.Google Scholar

Sloan, E. D. Jr., 1998. Clathrate Hydrates of Natural Gases. Second ed. New York: Marcel Dekker Inc.

Sohl, F., Sears, W. D., and Lorenz, R. D. 1995. Tidal Dissipation on Titan. Icarus, 115, 278–294. doi: 10.1006/icar.1995.1097.Google Scholar

Sohl, F., Hussmann, H., Schwenker, B., and Spohn, T. 2003. Interior Structure Models and Tidal Love Numbers of Titan. J. Geophys. Res., 108(E12), 5130.Google Scholar

Sohl, F., Choukroun, M., Kargel, J., Kimura, J., et al. 2010. Subsurface Water Oceans on Icy Satellites: Chemical Composition and Exchange Processes. Space Sci. Rev., 153, 485–510. doi: 10.1007/s11214-010-9646-y.Google Scholar

Solomatov, V. S. 1995. Scaling of Temperature- and Stress-Dependent Viscosity Convection. Physics of Fluids, 7, 266–274. doi: 10.1063/1.868624.Google Scholar

Sotin, C., and Tobie, G. 2004. Internal Structure and Dynamics of the Large Icy Satellites. Comptes Rendus Physique, 5, 769–780. doi: 10.1016/j.crhy.2004.08.001.Google Scholar

Sotin, C., Mitri, G., Rappaport, N., Schubert, G., et al. 2009. Titan's Interior Structure. In Brown, R. H., Lebreton, J.-P., and Waite, J. H. (eds.), Titan from Cassini- Huygens. Springer., pp. 61–73. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4020-9215-2_4.CrossRef

Squyres, S. W., Reynolds, R. T., Summers, A. L., and Shung, F. 1988. Accretional Heating of the Satellites of Saturn and Uranus. J. Geophys. Res., 93, 8779–8794. doi: 10.1029/JB093iB08p08779.Google Scholar

Stevenson, D. J. 2000. Limits on the Variation of Thickness of Europa's Ice Shell. In Lunar and Planetary Institute Science Conference Abstracts. Lunar and Planetary Inst. Technical Report, vol. 31, p. 1506.Google Scholar

Stiles, B. W., Kirk, R. L., Lorenz, R. D., Hensley, S., et al. and the Cassini RADAR Team. 2008. Determining Titan's Spin State from Cassini RADAR Images. Astron. J., 135, 1669–1680. doi: 10.1088/0004-6256/135/5/1669.CrossRef Google Scholar

Stiles, B. W., Hensley, S., Gim, Y., Bates, D. M., etal. and the Cassini RADAR Team. 2009. Determining Titan Surface Topography from Cassini SAR Data. Icarus, 202, 584–598.Google Scholar

Stiles, B. W., Kirk, R. L., Lorenz, R. D., Hensley, S., et al. and the Cassini RADAR Team. 2010. Erratum: “Determining Titan's Spin State from Cassini Radar Images” (2008, AJ, 135, 1669). Astron. J., 139, 311. doi: 10.1088/0004-6256/139/1/311.Google Scholar

Stofan, E. R., Elachi, C., Lunine, J. I., and the Cassini RADAR team. 2007. The Lakes of Titan. Nature, 445, 61–64. doi: 10.1038/nature05438.CrossRef Google Scholar

Thomas, C., Picaud, S., Mousis, O., and Ballenegger, V 2008. A Theoretical Investigation into the Trapping of Noble Gases by Clathrates on Titan. Planet. Space Sci., 56, 1607–1617. doi: 10.1016/j.pss.2008.04.009.Google Scholar

Thrane, K., Bizzarro, M., and Baker, J. A. 2006. Extremely Brief Formation Interval for Refractory Inclusions and Uniform Distribution of 26Al in the Early Solar System. Astroph. J., 646, L159-L162. doi: 10.1086/506910.Google Scholar

Tobie, G., Mocquet, A., and Sotin, C. 2005a. Tidal Dissipation within Large Icy Satellites: Applications to Europa and Titan. Icarus, 177, 534–549. doi: 10.1016/j.icarus.2005.04.006.Google Scholar

Tobie, G., Grasset, O., Lunine, J. I., Mocquet, A., etal. 2005b. Titan's Internal Structure Inferred from a Coupled Thermal-Orbital Model. Icarus, 175, 496–502. doi: 10.1016/j.icarus.2004.12.007.Google Scholar

Tobie, G., Lunine, J. I., and Sotin, C. 2006. Episodic Outgassing as the Origin of Atmospheric Methane on Titan. Nature, 440, 61–64.Google Scholar

Tobie, G., Choukroun, M., Grasset, O., Le Mouelic, S., et al. 2009. Evolution of Titan and Implications for Its Hydrocarbon Cycle. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A, 367, 617–631. doi: 10.1098/rsta.2008.0246.Google Scholar

Tobie, G., Gautier, D., and Hersant, F. 2012. Titan's Bulk Composition Constrained by Cassini-Huygens: Implication for Internal Outgassing. Astrophys. J., 752(June), 125. doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/752/2/125.Google Scholar

Tokano, T., Van Hoolst, T., and Karatekin, O. 2011. Polar Motion of Titan Forced by the Atmosphere. J. Geophys. Res., 116(E15), E05002. doi: 10.1029/2010JE003758.CrossRef Google Scholar

Tonks, W. B., and Melosh, H. J. 1992. Core Formation by Giant Impacts. Icarus, 100, 326–346. doi: 10.1016/0019-1035(92)90104-F.Google Scholar

Turcotte, D. L., Willemann, R. J., Haxby, W. F., and Norberry, J. 1981. Role of Membrane Stresses in the Support of Planetary Topography. J. Geophys. Res., 86, 3951–3959. doi: 10.1029/JB086iB05p03951.Google Scholar

van der Waals, J. H., and Platteeuw, J. C. 1959. Clathrate Solutions. Advances in Chemical Physics, Vol.2. New York: Interscience.

Voss, L. F., Henson, B. F., and Robinson, J. M. 2007. Methane Thermodynamics in Nanoporous Ice: A New Methane Reservoir on Titan. J. Geophys. Res. (Planets), 112(E11), E05002. doi: 10.1029/2006JE002768.CrossRef Google Scholar

Waite, J. H., Niemann, H., Yelle, R. V., Kasprzak, W. T. et al. 2005. Ion Neutral Mass Spectrometer Results from the First Flyby of Titan. Science, 308, 982–986. doi: 10.1126/science.1110652.Google Scholar

Waite, J. H. Jr., Lewis, W. S., Magee, B. A., Lunine, J. I., et al. 2009. Liquid Water on Enceladus from Observations of Ammonia and 40Ar in the Plume. Nature, 460, 487–490. doi: 10.1038/nature08153.CrossRef Google Scholar

Xie, S., and Tackley, P. J. 2004. Evolution of Helium and Argon Isotopes in a Convecting Mantle. Phys. Earth Planet. Int., 146, 417–439. doi: 10.1016/j.pepi.2004.04.003.Google Scholar

Zahnle, K., Pollack, J. B., Grinspoon, D., and Dones, L. 1992. Impact-Generated Atmospheres over Titan, Ganymede, and Callisto. Icarus, 95, 1–23. doi: 10.1016/0019-1035(92)90187-C.CrossRef Google Scholar

Zebker, H. A., Gim, Y., Callahan, P., Hensley, S., et al., and the Cassini RADAR Team. 2009a. Analysis and Interpretation of Cassini Titan Radar Altimeter Echoes. Icarus, 200, 240–255. doi: 10.1016/j.icarus.2008.10.023.CrossRef Google Scholar

Zebker, H. A., Stiles, B., Hensley, S., Lorenz, R., et al. 2009b. Size and Shape of Saturn's Moon Titan. Science, 324, 921–923. doi: 10.1126/science.1168905.Google Scholar

Zolotov, M. Y. 2007. An Oceanic Composition on Early and Today's Enceladus. Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L23203. doi: 10.1029/2007GL031234.Google Scholar

Zolotov, M. Y. 2010. Oceanic Chemical Evolution on Icy Moons. LPI Contributions, 1538, 5304.Google Scholar

Zolotov, M. Y., and Kargel, J. S. 2009. On the Chemical Composition of Europa's Icy Shell, Ocean, and Underlying Rocks. In Europa, R. T., Pappalardo, W. B., McKinnon, K. K., Khurana (eds.) Tucson: University of Arizona Press, p. 431.

Book contents

1 - The origin and evolution of Titan

Summary

Access options

References

Save book to Kindle

Save book to Dropbox

Save book to Google Drive