This chapter discusses recent developments in the “undoing” of the Valley of the Fallen, Francisco Franco’s most important memorial. After a brief introduction to the complex making of the monument and its multiple frictions with emerging cultures of memory in twenty-first-century Spain, the text focuses on the dismantling of its necropolitical layout. This funerary unmaking is part of a refashioning of the monument in the context of what in Spain is currently called “democratic memory.” Major achievements have already been made: dictator Francisco Franco was exhumed in 2019 and the founder of the Spanish Fascist Party in 2023. In June 2023, after a complicated legal, political, and technical process, an exhumation began in the crypts to search for 180 bodies claimed by relatives, revealing all the contradictions and shadows that still linger in the monument. At the time of writing, sixteen bodies of Republican civilians have already been identified and returned to their families. The chapter is based on a twenty-year multisite ethnography of mass grave exhumations dating back the Spanish Civil War (1936–9). Over time, my research project branched out to include analysis of the memorial conflicts emerging around the Valley of the Fallen.

The chapter starts by examining the backlash among Orangemen in the Border Counties to Éire’s 1948 unilateral decision to leave the British Commonwealth and become a republic. Coming to terms with the new constitutional reality was traumatic, and adaptation was not facilitated by the Catholic hierarchy, which was in full crusading mood against domestic heresy and foreign communism. The chapter examines a few high-profile cases – including the 1956 Hungarian refugees episode and the 1957 Fethard-on-Sea Boycott – and explores the mix of complacency, insecurity and resignation with which both Jews and Protestants responded to the mounting intolerance of the church hierarchy. An age of anxieties, the 1950s was also an age of extremes for the Irish minorities. Just when they seemed to be at their lowest ebb, supine under clerical dictation, while the Orange Order was fighting and losing old peripheral battles, Irish civil society came to the rescue and liberal opinion started to question traditional deference to Catholic power.

This chapter explores case-control studies, an analytical observational design particularly suited for investigating rare diseases and conditions with long latency periods. The methodology is explained, with cases defined as individuals with the outcome of interest and controls as those without, drawn from the same source population. Retrospective assessment of exposure history forms the basis of analysis, allowing researchers to identify associations between exposures and outcomes. The odds ratio is introduced as the principal measure of association, with guidance on its interpretation and limitations. The chapter highlights the efficiency of case-control studies, requiring smaller sample sizes compared with cohort designs, and their particular value when incidence data are difficult or costly to obtain. Challenges such as recall bias, selection bias, and difficulties in establishing temporality are critically discussed. Strategies to minimise bias, including careful matching of cases and controls and validation of exposure measures, are outlined. Practical examples demonstrate the application of case-control studies in fields such as cancer epidemiology and outbreak investigations. The chapter concludes by emphasising the continued relevance of case-control designs in modern epidemiology. This chapter maps to syllabus section 3.2.3, which requires detailed knowledge of case-control studies, their strengths, weaknesses, and potential biases.

The Romantic Self is constituted by otherness, by relations that are in constant transformation. In the preceding pages, this issue has been addressed with a particular focus on the relationship between the self and nature. In this part of the book, we shall see that the same applies to the relationship between the self and history: the I cannot separate herself from, or impose herself on, the historical conditions in which she emerges; rather, these are part of the Romantic Self. In this chapter, in particular, I will show that the ‘defective’ essence of the Romantic Self hinders her to impose her sovereign will on the development of historical events. This is reflected in her incapacity to bring into unity the fragmentation of the modern age (described by Friedrich Schlegel through an opposition to the ancient epoch) and in the impossibility to interpret history as a manifestation of human progress. The absence of a unitary line in history challenges the hermeneutics of the present, too: on this, Schlegel’s genealogical perspective wants to give a solution.

This epilogue considers the operatic and political shifts that took place in Italy in the 1920s, as Mussolini’s government took power, a postwar economic crisis affected the theatrical sector, and new emigration laws were established in the United States. I argue that the Liberal Era has bequeathed key discourses about Italy, opera and italianità as well as influential operatic infrastructures that shape today’s transatlantic and global operatic industry. But the period is also firmly in the past: as witnessed by the transformation of Little Italy and La Boca into tourist districts and sites of memory. Several operatic stagings have sought to depict these two areas, shaped by Hollywood cinema and fascination with the mafia; but these are only one part of a broader historical landscape still awaiting full recognition.

This chapter focusses on diseases and states that are linked to reduced or absent hunger. The largest part of the chapter is devoted to anorexia nervosa, and the abnormalities in hunger that occur in this disease, both as a cause (e.g., gut disorders in childhood impairing learning of interoceptive hunger) and consequence (extinction of hunger). A section on constitutional thinness follows, where a person is healthy and does not restrict food intake yet remains unusually thin. Certain chronic diseases, as well as old age, are linked to loss of hunger, and wasting. The final section explores several other sources of restriction. These include orthorexia (attempts to achieve dietary purity), meat-free diets, and the effects of stress, anxiety, and melancholic depression. The chapter ends with the most theoretically interesting topic, avoidant and restrictive feeding disorder and its related entity, paediatric feeding disorder. These conditions may reflect dysfunctional acquisition of hunger, and so provide further evidence for a learning perspective on human hunger.

In this introductory chapter, we set the stage for what we learned from our study in later chapters. We begin with a discussion of the law of crime concentration. In some sense, it is the first law of study of crime and place, because it provides a logic for why it is important to examine hot spots of crime. We then turn to a brief history and description of the research site for our study – Baltimore City, Maryland. It is important to put Baltimore in historical context to be able to understand the specific research environment from which we draw our data. Following this, we detail our data collection. We describe the main features of our research program, which employed rigorous methods to identify places for study and collect data for analyses. Finally, we provide an overview of the directions we take in the book, introducing the chapters that follow.

Chapter 5 provides an in-depth analysis of the far right in Chile, focusing on José Antonio Kast and the Republican Party (PR). It begins by elucidating the ideological bedrock of authoritarianism, nativism, and neoliberalism that fuels the ascent of the far right. Central to this exploration is how these ideologies manifest in the politicization of punitive justice, traditional gender roles, and restrictive immigration policies – all within a framework marked by a staunch anti-communist stance. The chapter then seamlessly connects these political strategies to the tactics of otherization targeting indigenous communities, immigrants, and leftist elites. By doing so, it places these exclusionary practices within the broader context of identity politics, providing a comprehensive understanding of how these dynamics interact and reinforce each other in shaping the far right’s impact on Chile’s political landscape.

Economic globalization has produced uneven outcomes that challenge conventional development strategies. This chapter examines how global rules in trade, finance, and taxation reflect and reproduce asymmetries of power. It analyses the tensions between national sovereignty and global fairness, particularly in multilateral institutions. The chapter proposes reforms to create more balanced international regimes, enabling developing countries to pursue inclusive growth while participating meaningfully in global governance. Justice requires institutional redesign beyond national borders.

The chapter argues that courts in hybrid regimes face a legitimacy paradox: An activist court risks attracting backlash from the authoritarian, whereas a deferential court may undermine the trust of a democracy-supporting population. The chapter first lays out the conventional view of perceived legitimacy, including the mechanisms behind it and its utility. The conventional view is premised upon the political dynamics of a democracy; this requires modification in order to be applicable to a hybrid regime. It then takes on this task by introducing a relational angle. An audience-based framework is shown to help us identify the key audiences that are relevant to judicial legitimacy in different regime-types. The audience-based framework is then applied to a hybrid regime to set out the legitimacy paradox. The effects of the paradox are practical, as exemplified by the tensions between the expectations different political actors within a hybrid regime have of a constitutional court. It will be explained how these conflicting expectations create challenges for judicial maneuvering in a hybrid regime.

The Introduction situates the book in its historical time and place and establishes the framework for the chapters that follow. It explains the focus on the period from 1891 to 1911 and shows how debates about the Iranian nation entered public discourse more prominently during and after the Tobacco Movement. The book examines four non-Muslim communities in Iran – Zoroastrians, Jews, Christians, and Babis/Bahaʾis/Azalis – and provides a brief overview of their historical presence in the country. The Introduction also analyzes the various names and labels applied to non-Muslim individuals and communities during this period, as well as the meanings and assumptions embedded in these terms. A historiographical section reviews the existing scholarship on the subject before outlining the theoretical approaches that inform the study. Drawing on the work of Michel Foucault, Henri Lefebvre, Giorgio Agamben, and James C. Scott, the Introduction briefly presents key concepts used throughout the book, including discipline and punishment, heterotopia, the production of social space, homo sacer, the state of exception, and shatter zones.