Humans are essentially social creatures, motivated to seek and enjoy human contact. This property is shared with a number of non-human species, a conserved characteristic. Belonging confers essential functional advantages; for example, defence against predators. Attachment is based upon a socially directed motivational system, which provides for flexible behaviour. The chapter describes the attachment theory of Bowlby and Ainsworth, types of attachment and the notion of an internal working model. The theory derived support from imprinting in geese and Harlow’s studies on monkeys. fMRI studies reveal some of the brain bases of attachment. The chapter describes Panksepp’s brain opioid theory of social attachment. Underlying attachment, dopamine and oxytocin interact, exemplified by pair-bonding in the prairie vole. Motivation rooted in aversion is described in the cases of loneliness and social rejection. Could brain opioids help to explain why victims of domestic abuse so often return to their abuser?

This chapter introduces simple and multiple linear regression models – core tools in predictive modelling due to their simplicity and interpretability. These models assume the response variable is a linear function of the predictor(s), plus a noise term. The regression function gives the expected response given the predictors. The coefficient of determination, R2, measures how much of the variance in the response is explained by the model. In simple linear regression, R2 equals the square of the Pearson correlation between response and predictor; in multiple regression, it equals the square of the correlation between response and predicted values. Each coefficient in multiple regression reflects the expected change in the response for a one-unit increase in that predictor, holding others fixed. Standardising predictors lets us compare coefficient sizes. Strong collinearity between predictors increases uncertainty in the fitted coefficients. Models using only a subset of predictors may generalise better than those using all and overfitting. The squared error risk of a modelling procedure – its expected test error – can be broken down into bias, variance and irreducible noise.

This chapter begins by introducing the international civil service – the employees of international organizations, possessing a treaty-based status, inherent to instrumentalizing the mandates of multilateral institutions. Second, the legal attributes of the international civil service are identified, namely: (1) Efficiency and competence; (2) Geography diversity; and (3) Integrity and independence. Third, the chapter considers the authority to administer the international civil service, possessed by the principal executive officer, who is appointed and regulated by the governance organs of international organizations. Fourth, and in conclusion, this legal basis of the international civil service is restated.

This contribution describes the corpus-based approach to translation studies (CBTS) as it developed in the early 1990s. Due to their theoretical and historical importance, studies employing monolingual comparable corpora are presented first. These promoted a change of focus compared to parallel studies, and it is thanks to them that corpus methods gained momentum in translation research. Parallel corpus studies as well as studies adopting composite corpus structures specific to translation are then reviewed. An attempt is made at combining coverage of research methodologies and of research questions, in particular concerning typical features of translation and their linguistic realizations. The discussion of more recent developments addresses the heightened focus in CBTS on non-prototypical translation, the integration of corpus and process-oriented methodologies, multifactorial methods and research objects, and the theoretical modeling of translation. The case study presented seeks to shed light on differences in the use of collocations in original and translated language. It adopts a tripartite corpus structure combining the advantages of the monolingual comparable and of the parallel approach. Based on the methodological and descriptive insights gained through this study and the preceding overview, a discussion of limits and ways forward for corpus-based phraseological studies of translation concludes the chapter.

This chapter revisits Tinbergen’s four types of explanation. Features of motivation include arousal and activation, flexibility, layers of control, the opponent-process theory, excitation transfer, and the sensitization of particular stimulus–response connections. Similarities between motivations are discussed; for example, the dopaminergic pathway from the VTA to the NAcc underlies each motivation and wanting versus liking. The chapter describes interactions and competition between different motivations. Inadequacies of drive are noted. Evolutionary mismatch also applies to contemporary fears. The topic of need is revisited in the context of examples of where it arises in various chapters (e.g. the need for heat). The opponent process theory of motivation is described in terms of imprinting and withdrawal from drugs. The distinction between regulation and control, introduced in the context of temperature regulation, is revisited. Liking/pleasure often correlates with positive reinforcement but not always. The motor act involved in behaviour has a reinforcement value.

This chapter begins by introducing international organizations, historically constituted and governed in accordance with international law. Second, the conventional legal characteristics of international organizations are identified, namely: (1) Treaty-basis; (2) State membership; (3) Independence. Third, an examination is made of the way in which the powers of international organizations are sufficient to achieve – but not exceed – their purposes. Fourth, the privileges and immunities that states typically extend to international organizations within their jurisdictions are considered. Fifth, and in conclusion, this legal basis of international organizations is restated.

This chapter provides an overview of multimodal corpora, highlighting their significance in analyzing communication that integrates various modes such as speech, gesture, and gaze. The chapter defines both a mode and a multimodal corpus before introducing key types of multimodal corpora, including video-recorded interactions, corpora of signed languages, and datasets combining text and images. Prominent examples of multimodal corpora such as the ViMELF, FreMIC, and AMI corpora showcase the variety of multimodal corpora that exist and the various techniques employed to construct multimodal corpora. Challenges in constructing and annotating multimodal corpora are discussed, including temporal alignment, manual annotation efforts, and data-sharing limitations due to privacy concerns. The chapter emphasizes the importance of tailoring multimodal corpora to specific research questions while acknowledging the trade-offs of specialization. Advancements in technology, such as automated tagging and collaborative tools, are proposed as potential solutions to enhance accessibility and interoperability. A case study on turn management in virtual meetings illustrates the application of multimodal analysis, offering insights into how participants request and allocate turns in mediated contexts. The chapter serves as a guide for researchers navigating the methodological complexities of multimodal corpus-based studies.

This chapter uses aspects of numismatic evidence (circulation and weight standards) to examine what coinage can tell us about connectivity and regionalism in Archaic Greece. Coinage spread westwards and northwards from its beginnings in around 550, first in the Aegean basin (Aegina and other islands), mainland Greece (Athens, Corinth, Boeotia, Thessaly) and further north (Thrace and Macedonia). By 480 it had been adopted by a wide range of communities, but they represented only a minority of known states. They are characterised by a number of different weight standards – principally the Euboeic, Aeginetan, Corinthian and Attic. Early Athenian coinage consisted of the so-called Wappenmünzen, but these were succeeded in the late sixth century by the famous ‘owls’. However, Aegina was probably the first place in mainland Greece to have made coins, from about 550, and its plentiful coinage circulated widely. Corinthian coinage was also influential. Northern Greece saw several zones of production, while inland tribal communities produced very large coins as a way of exporting the silver from their mines. All these coins circulated together and are found in hoards all over the eastern Mediterranean, having been used in trade and mercenary payments. A link with trireme warfare is also explored.

In this chapter, we examine our first supervised learning problem, focusing on how to construct prediction functions and assess their performance. Given data consisting of predictor–response pairs, we can learn the parameters of a prediction function by minimising a loss, such as the residual sum of squares, which measures the discrepancy between actual and predicted responses. Using more flexible families of prediction functions typically reduces loss on the training data, but excessive flexibility can lead to overfitting: fitting to noise rather than the systematic component of the relationship. Overfitting results in poor prediction performance on new, unseen data. To estimate how a prediction method will perform on unseen data, we use cross-validation. However, when we compare many prediction methods using cross-validation, the best-performing method often appears better than it truly is; its apparent performance is an unreliable guide to its future accuracy. Prior knowledge is crucial for selecting plausible prediction methods to compare. Finally, we can use bootstrapping to quantify uncertainty in prediction functions and their predictions.

Understanding the health and cultural safety of older people is a critical issue in Aotearoa New Zealand. It requires a nuanced approach that respects diverse backgrounds, promotes equitable access to care and supports ageing with dignity. With an ageing population projected to include 30 individuals aged 65 and over for every 100 people aged 15 to 64 by 2028, there is an urgent need to deepen our understanding of the distinct health needs and cultural considerations of older adults from diverse backgrounds. Healthcare providers must recognise and respect the socio-cultural beliefs, values and practices of their patients to ensure care is both appropriate and culturally safe. This includes acknowledging the importance of whānau and community connections, honouring tikanga Māori and other cultural customs and addressing the impact of stigma and discrimination on the health and wellbeing of older individuals.

The chapter looks at addictions in the context of evolution and evolutionary mismatch, noting that feeding addiction relates to ultra-processed food. It compares addiction to such foods and to drugs. Sexual addiction can be to partnered sex or to pornography. In love addiction, the target is one individual. The notion of gambling addiction is discussed. Exercise can have some addictive properties (e.g. escalation, craving, and withdrawal symptoms). The chapter then returns to the topic of non-suicidal self-injurious behaviour. Somewhat similar to NSSI in showing addictive properties, are body-focussed repetitive behaviours (e.g. hair pulling and skin picking). Suicidal behaviour can provide a kind of long-term preoccupation and has overlap with chemical and sexual addictions. Crime including violence can take on properties of addiction. There is a comorbidity between domestic violence and drug addiction. Ding and Li describe digital addiction as a ‘functional impairment’ and a ‘global health problem’.

Aggression is associated with inflicting damage. Anger underlies it. Links to coercion and dominance are described, as well as excitation transfer. Defensive/offensive aggression and predatory aggression are distinct. The dichotomy between reactive aggression and instrumental (proactive) aggression is described. ‘Appetitive aggression’ is conducted for intrinsic pleasure. The notion of levels of control applies to the inhibition on aggression. Explanatory models are discussed (e.g. Lorenz’s hydraulic model). Aggression can exhibit positive reinforcement. A number of brain regions are discussed (e.g. the amygdala, VTA−NAcc, hypothalamus, cortex, and periaqueductal grey). The role of hormones is reviewed. Healthy development consists in part of learning to inhibit aggression. Early exposure to toxic role models increases the chances of later showing aggression. Other things that inhibit aggression are discussed (e.g. empathy). The chapter concludes with a discussion of several situations associated with aggression: ostracism, xenophobia, dehumanization, the weapons effect, media violence, alcohol, and traumatic brain injury.

This chapter examines William Burroughs’ extensive and experimental visual art practice, which spanned over four decades and included paintings, collages, photography, and sculpture – most notably his “shotgun paintings.” Often created privately and with utilitarian, even esoteric, intent, Burroughs’ art parallels his literary work in its disruption of conventional forms. The chapter traces the evolution of his practice, from early ink drawings and photo experiments to later works shaped by magic, science, and collaboration with an impressive range of artists. It situates Burroughs within key artistic movements and scenes – from Dada in Paris and Pop Art in New York to outsider art in Kansas – while highlighting the limited critical attention his visual work has received. Despite numerous late-life and posthumous exhibitions, Burroughs remains an underexplored figure in contemporary art history. This study calls for deeper scholarly engagement with his unique and enigmatic body of work, which continues to resist categorization and invites new interpretations.