The first chapter concerns the significance of ethnic-national identity. It first gives a methodological argument for the focus on organizations. It then offers a breakdown of Shiʿite organizations and their interlocking board memberships in Britain and the Netherlands. This establishes ethnic-national identity as the bedrock of Shiʿite organization in the UK-Dutch sample. An Islamic thought pattern exemplified by the Shiʿite notable Ali Allawi is used to frame several cases of civic engagement that transcend the ethnic-national mould and show Shiʿism as a political actor, whose role is limited, however, by low organization density. The organizations of this chapter are ‘contrapuntal’ not only in the civic-ethnic contrast, but also in that between ethnic-national reality and the Islamic norm of parochial transcendence. Moreover, organizational reality contrasts a key trend in the social science theory of Islam in Europe, which presents Europe as an assimilating force leading to Muslims’ de-ethnicization. This first chapter indicates the opposite: identitarian retention.

This chapter describes the evolution of the mining sector in Rwanda, both its domestic mining sector and in relation to the trade of minerals from the neighbouring Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Trading minerals from mineral-rich Eastern DRC has benefited Rwanda’s domestic economy through providing access to foreign exchange revenues. However, dependence on minerals from the DRC has been a double-edged sword. While providing significant revenues and being central to national security interests, increased reliance on the DRC contributes to the empowerment of individual business and military elites that may later become threats to the RPF’s ruling coalition. The RPF has transformed the domestic minerals sector with increased investments in geological investigations, as well as significant increases in domestic production. Dynamics in the domestic minerals sector mirror the elite vulnerability characterising other sectors. Though individual elites initially benefited from privatisation efforts, there is increased reliance on government-owned firms (like Ngali) for its most ambitious upgrading strategies. Attempts at beneficiation have been impeded by difficulties in developing effective domestic state–business relationships and challenges in centralising control over supply chains.

Chapter 2 is a comprehensive overview and critical assessment of the extant academic literature on gender and the global climate crisis. It begins with a section showcasing how the emphasis has largely been on women at the micro level, which often ends up portraying women as victims that need rescuing, thus habitually overlooking women’s agency. The subsequent section discusses in brief the concept of climate governance, before moving onto a discussion of the theory of representation. This section focuses on Pitkin’s (1967) typology of representation as well as extant research on the four dimensions of representation, whilst simultaneously outlining and anchoring the research questions upon which the book rests. The nine research questions cover a range of topics, including (but not limited to) the factors governing the success of female parliamentarians, gendered portfolios, leadership opportunities, the role of political parties, women representing women, intersectionality, and gender quotas.

Chapter 2 reviews recent landmark decisions in strategic climate litigation against governments and the private sector in courts and tribunals in the United States and around the world. Many of these landmark decisions occurred in domestic courts and relied on Paris Agreement commitments as leverage in lawsuits seeking to raise domestic governments’ climate governance ambition. Other cases focused on human rights theories in seeking to compel governments to enhance protection of vulnerable communities facing disproportionate burdens from climate change impacts. The chapter also addresses the groundbreaking proceeding and decision in the Carbon Majors petition before the Philippines Human Rights Commission.

The introduction treats Shiʿite-European encounters; locates them in the social science theory on Muslims in Europe; frames the research question alternatively; and gives chapter outlines. It starts with a sketch of Shiʿite Muslims’ migration to Europe and the development of their communities. The literature review juxtaposes assimilatory approaches to Muslims in Europe that see Europe as a cultural transformer and sceptical perspectives asserting mal-integration or its absence. The alternative hypothesis holds that European Shiʿism has been significantly self-contained, with traditions key to grasping its self-other relations, which range from segregation to assimilation. The (post-)migration context brings self-other relations to the fore, provoking questions of relative order that are answered in more exclusionary fashion by actors closer to high jurisprudential authority. The main themes in this theory of European Shiʿism are mapped on to chapter outlines and case studies.

We explore the origin of mineral colour and optical properties, including absorption, luminescence, and fluorescence. We examine crystal field theory within the context of electronic bands, providing insights into the underlying principles. Additionally, we discuss optical constants and address the challenge of determining the optical gap.

The archaeology of Byzantium is the archaeology of an empire whose chronological bounds, broadly speaking, spanned the fourth through fifteenth century AD. The authors whose works are collected in this handbook examine methods and practice of Byzantine archaeology as well as the materials typically encountered in artifacts produced within the imperial boundaries. Byzantine archaeology is still a relatively young discipline, and, while vast in its scope and ambition, work in the field tends to be challenging to access. This volume aims to remedy this situation by providing current views of the nature of Byzantine archaeology, exploring crucial studies which elucidate salient features of the empire’s people, as well as offering glimpses of how things may develop in the near future.

The spirituality of the psychiatrist is important because of the way that it may impact the well-being of the psychiatrist, clinical practice and the understanding of psychiatry more widely. In some cases, it may influence a psychiatrist’s sense of vocation to be a psychiatrist. The case study in this chapter draws on the author’s own experience of the ways in which spirituality and formation as a psychiatrist were entangled during training. Three historical examples are offered of different ways in which religion and psychiatry might be entangled in the life, work and thought of psychiatrists: a pragmatic atheism (Maudsley), religion understood as pathology (Freud) and religion as beneficial to mental flourishing (Jung). Three more recent examples are then considered, one of a Christian attempt to integrate theology and psychiatry (Frank Lake), one of reflections on how Buddhism influences practice as a psychiatrist (Mark Epstein) and one of a personal encounter of a psychiatrist with shamanism (Olga Kharitidi).

Learning Outcomes

After reading this chapter, the reader will be able to

• Express the meaning of sphere of influence and collision frequency

• Derive the distribution function for the free paths among the molecules and demonstrate the concept of mean free path

• Calculate the expression for mean free path following Clausius and Maxwell

• Derive the expression for pressure exerted by a gas using the survival equation

• Calculate the expressions for viscosity, thermal conductivity, and diffusion coefficient of a gaseous system

• Demonstrate Brownian motion with its characteristics and calculate the mean square displacement of a particle executing Brownian motion

• State the idea of a random walk problem

• Solve numerical problems and multiple choice questions on the mean free path, viscosity, thermal conduction, diffusion, Brownian motion, and random walk

4.1 Introduction

The molecules of an ideal gas are considered as randomly moving point particles. From the concept of kinetic theory of gases (KTG), it is well established that even at room temperature, such point molecules of the ideal gas move at very large speeds. The average value of this speed can be determined assuming that the molecules obey Maxwell's speed distribution law and is given by the following expression

The archaeology of Byzantium is the archaeology of an empire whose chronological bounds, broadly speaking, spanned the fourth through fifteenth century AD. The authors whose works are collected in this handbook examine methods and practice of Byzantine archaeology as well as the materials typically encountered in artifacts produced within the imperial boundaries. Byzantine archaeology is still a relatively young discipline, and, while vast in its scope and ambition, work in the field tends to be challenging to access. This volume aims to remedy this situation by providing current views of the nature of Byzantine archaeology, exploring crucial studies which elucidate salient features of the empire’s people, as well as offering glimpses of how things may develop in the near future.