The Conclusion first reiterates the three main arguments of the book. It then surveys changes and continuities in global education and development policies since the 1960s, while also touching on the present state of public education in Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire. It closes by reflecting on education’s double-edged nature as it relates to the problem of freedom: Does education emancipate, or oppress?

The philosophy of Jacques Derrida generally comes under heavy criticism from analytic philosophers. His work is sometimes judged to be purely exegetical, a comment on the history of philosophy, and insufficiently focused on relevant, pressing problems. It is accused of lacking clarity and rigour, especially presenting arguments that appear to contain contradic¬tions. These criticisms may be true some of the time but they are not true all of the time. There are certainly occasions where Derrida's philosophy does focus on a problem that analytic philosophers deem to be pressing and there are occasions where the apparent contradictions are a reason¬able attempt at expressing a particularly complex philosophical difficulty or conundrum. It would be inconsistent with a philosophical principle of charity for an analytic philosopher to assume that Derrida's work makes no contribution to academically rigorous philosophy. Indeed, it is possible to see in Politics of Friendship where Derrida draws philosophical conclusions about personal identity that bring his work into parallel with one of the most widely respected analytic philosophers on this topic, Derek Parfit. Notwithstanding the supposed gap between continental and analytical philosophy, both of these philosophers share a similar critical argument directed at the Cartesian conception of the subject or self. For Derrida, this argument is contained within the ‘Recoils’ chapter and, for Parfit, the argument is in his 1984 book Reasons and Persons, both arguing that the Cartesian conception is needlessly constraining, and both suggesting that an advance in philosophical thinking is possible. To this end, Parfit offers one of his most famous thought experiments, Fission, and Derrida concludes his chapter with his own thought-provoking reply to Descartes, claiming ‘I think, therefore I am the other’ (PF, 224). Derrida, alongside Parfit, succeeds in presenting reasons to consider personal identity beyond Cartesian limitations of singularity and indivisibility.

A survey of language variation (phonological, lexical, grammatical, and pragmatic) - includes regional, generational, and gender variation. Covers the difference between languages and language varieties, kinds of variation (regional, socioeconomic, gender, age, vocational), phonological variation, lexical varation, grammatical variation, and discourse and stylistic variation.

Distillation (Bucila et al., 2006; Hinton et al., 2015) is a technique for obtaining a small and computationally efficient model that performs the same function as a large and computationally intensive model. The original large model is referred to as the teacher model, and the resulting small model is called the student model. It is also common to employ an ensemble of multiple models as the teacher model.

There are also purely algebraic reasons why nilpotent groups should be of interest. Firstly, there is the well-known connection between homology, lower central series and (Massey) products [Dw75, St65].

This chapter reviews the expanding legal scope of the subject, noting the universalisation of international law beyond its European roots and the development of international human rights law and international criminal law, as well as the rise of international organisations. Modern theories and interpretations are examined, ranging from the natural law/positive law debates, referring to Kelsen and Hart in particular, to more contemporary approaches, such as power politics and balance of power, behaviouralism and the policy-oriented school including the views of McDougal and Franck, with the latter’s focus on legitimacy, and on to the critical legal studies movement, noting the important work of Koskenniemi, particularly emphasising the relationship between law and society. These various theories and approaches illustrate and reveal the political, ethical and social aspects of international law. The chapter then turns to discuss the problem of the fragmentation of international law, with the rise of special treaty regimes and particular rules, and how the system may deal with this phenomenon.

Chapter 7 looks at the role of officials in carrying out religious policy. It begins with an analysis of their social profile from the 1950s to the Cultural Revolution and shows that despite officials’ rising literacy and improved political education, they found it hard to carry out a policy that demanded respect for religious freedom, on the one hand, and the elimination of folk religion, coded as ‘feudal superstition’. The chapter looks at four dimensions of officials’ involvement in implementing religious policy: their response to the destruction of lineages and to the persistence of lineage sentiment; their involvement in the levelling of gravesites during collectivization; their relationship to the popular upsurge to restore the ‘sacred village’ in the aftermath of the famine; and the support of a significant minority in sustaining folk religion. It shows grassroots officials displayed a variety of responses to folk religion, which affected the experiences of believers.

This chapter examines the foreign teacher recruitment strategies mobilized by Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire. Economists and politicians agreed that secondary schools were crucial for producing the skilled workers essential to development. But new nations faced an intractable roadblock as they sought to expand secondary schools: a deficit of local teachers. Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire found different solutions to the crisis of teacher scarcity, although both relied on foreigners. Ghana turned to plural sources of generally inexperienced educators. Côte d’Ivoire, instead, leaned on French teachers available through technical assistance (or coopération). Both strategies responded to the maddening paradox of the postcolonial teacher: a role that West Africans agreed was essential, but which few opted to pursue. Ultimately, the reliance on foreign teachers contributed to the corrosion of the emancipatory project of public education.

In this chapter, we provide an overview of how second languages (L2s) are acquired, processed and represented in the brain. We begin by reviewing experimental methods, along with relevant studies employing them, with a particular focus on fMRI and EEG, two metabolic and electrophysiological measures that elucidate our knowledge of multiple languages in one brain. We then discuss a few moderating effects of L2 acquisition along with a dialogue of how multilinguals process structure and meaning as elaborated in key theories. Finally, we elaborate on how research on multiple memory systems can possibly shed light on the acquisition and teaching of L2s in the classroom with respect to the effectiveness of the explicit presentation of grammar rules and feedback. We conclude by identifying research topics that are shaping ongoing work in bilingual processing and sparking new dialogues that have the potential to significantly advance the field.

This chapter examines the culmination of the militarisation of economic interdependence through Franco-Russian relations between 1912 and 1914. From summer 1913, French diplomats, for the first time, made a loan conditional on Russian military commitments. The Russian military was already working to accelerate mobilisation, but required finance to build railway infrastructure. French politicians also responded to the German threat by adding a third year of military service. These measures tested the fiscal capacity of the French state and governments became mired in crises over tax reform and loans in 1913 and 1914. An increasing willingness to countenance the use of military force was evident in Russian discussions to seize the Straits from the Ottoman empire in a future crisis, reflecting a lack of alternative economic instruments for Russia. The shift in Russian policy was encapsulated by the sacking of Vladimir Kokovtsov, a long-time advocate of foreign policy restraint, as Premier and Finance Minister.

Hypertensive emergency is an acute elevation of blood pressure (usually >180/110 mmHg) associated with end-organ injury. Hypertensive emergency can be present at lower blood pressures with hypertension-associated signs and symptoms. Treatment of hypertensive emergency includes frequent blood pressure monitoring and neurologic checks, administering IV antihypertensive medications, and evaluating for evidence of end-organ damage. The treatment goal is to reduce mean arterial pressure (MAP) by a maximum of 20−25% in the first 1−2 hours and then, if clinically stable, reduce BP to 160/100 mmHg over the next 6−12 hours. Aggressive reduction in blood pressure can lead to coronary, cerebral, or renal hypoperfusion. Pharmacologic therapy should be used to provide a predictable, titratable, and transient effect on blood pressure. If a patient presents with symptoms consistent with ischemic stroke, it is recommended to only treat BP if it exceeds 220/120 mmHg. In a patient not undergoing reperfusion therapy, treat with a goal to reduce BP by 10−15%. If the patient is a candidate for reperfusion therapy, the BP should be lowered if it is above 185/110 mmHg. Hypertensive emergency warrants medical admission with telemetry or ICU.

Particle motion. The development derives expressions for velocity and acceleration in terms of rectangular coordinates, followed by polar and spherical coordinate systems. A novel derivation of formulas for general curvilinear coordinates is provided in an online supplement. The focus then shifts to situations in which the path of a particle is known. This calls for the use of path variables, also known as tangent-normal components. Formulas are derived for paths that are twisted in three dimension, such as a rollercoaster. The closing topic is the method of mixed kinematical descriptions, which addresses situations in which aspects from two different descriptions are used to facilitate solutions of challenging problems.

In this chapter, we present and discuss the contributions that usage-based theories of language have made to the theory and practice of second language learning and teaching. Soon after its establishment as an independent theoretical framework, usage-based linguistics inaugurated an applied branch with two volumes by Pütz et al. dedicated to second language acquisition (SLA) and language pedagogy (LP). Rather unusually, usage-based theories retained a close link between linguistic theory, the theoretical study of language acquisition and the development of language pedagogy, resulting in a number of direct applications of usage-based linguistic insights to the study of language learning and teaching.Because of the crucial role that cognitive capacities play in usage-based approaches they are naturally amenable to the integration of insights from psychology. We will zoom in on a particularly fruitful line of research that has seen insights from the psychology of learning applied to language across L1 and in L2. Looking ahead, we discus work that puts learning models from psychology to use for the operationalisation of the usage-based notion of emergence, thereby challenging traditional assumptions regarding the mental representations of language attributed to language learners by linguists and how these apply to the theory and practice of L2 learning and teaching.