Chapter 6 focuses on loan character transcription systems. Loan character transcription systems for Korean started with the transcribing of proper names. The next step involved the practice of interpreting or reading Chinese characters in the vernacular; finally, methods were developed for writing sentences in the vernacular using Chinese characters. These practices represent a widespread phenomenon, found in many nations and periods of history, whereby a foreign writing system is used to write a local vernacular, beginning with the simple practice of reading the foreign writing in that vernacular, a practice which has been called “vernacular reading”. In Korea, the initial stage of sentence-unit transcriptions involved simply transposing Chinese character (sinograph) texts from Chinese word order into Korean; this evolved to a stage where grammatical particles and endings, so-called t’o in the Korean writing tradition, were inserted into the text. Korean kugyŏl developed as a method of facilitating the vernacular reading of Chinese texts in Korean as they are read. Kugyŏl appears to date from the Shilla period.

Chapter 27 stresses the importance of connecting assessment with learning and of assessment prior to implementation of instructional design based on the backward design principle (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005). Backward design contrasts sharply with the traditional approach of planning instructional activities first and designing assessment later in the general instructional process. It also urges teachers to set clear learning objectives as the first step of curriculum design. After offering a short overview of key assessment types for different purposes, it presents Integrated Performance Assessment (IPA: Adair-Hauck, Glisan & Troyan, 2013) model by discussing how language proficiency and skills in real use of grammar and vocabulary can be measured in actual performance assessment. Actual students’ outcomes after implementation of IPA in an Advanced Korean class are collected and analyzed based on rubrics that can be used as standards for scoring. The chapter also analyzes whether there are correlations between IPA results and Proficiency outcomes.

As an increasingly established research field, family language policy (FLP) provides a very useful lens to view how bi/multilingual home language-use patterns are influenced by socio-political ideologies and economic factors at the macro level and by family members’ language ideology at the micro level. This chapter starts with an introduction to FLP and outlines the development phases of the field. It then provides a discussion of the major research contributions to the field. Following that, it provides a synthesis of the extant research on how FLP is established and maintained in a range of countries and contexts, particularly in multilingual families. The synthesis focuses on internal factors, such as emotion, identity and cultural practices, and child agency in the negotiation of a family language policy. Lastly, insights gleaned from the more diverse range of social contexts are taken into consideration when making implications for parents, educators, and policy makers and a call for future research.

Chapter 13 introduces many recent studies on Korean anaphors using both off-line and on-line experimental methods to test structural and non-structural constraints on their interpretation and usage. The questions addressed include whether the anaphor is interpreted via binding or co-reference, whether and how much logophoricity or empathy determines the antecedent potential of the anaphor, the locality of the dependency between the anaphor and its antecedent, and the quantificational bindability of the anaphor. The chapter presents a synthesis of these experimental studies on various types of Korean anaphoric forms, caki, casin, caki-casin, and 3rd person pronouns.

Chapter 22 focuses on a unique phenomenon in the Korean case system – case alternations and stacking – as a case study to illustrate two opposing views of case in Korean: the structural case view vs. information structure analyses. A more fine-grained information structure-based account of case stacking is proposed, arguing that the phenomenon implicates focus embedded in the topic phrase.

Chapter 23 reviews the role of grammaticalization at different levels of grammar: phonological, morpho-syntactic, paradigmatic, and semantic-pragmatic. It first discusses the dischronic principles and mechanisms that have been proposed in previous grammaticalization studies. The chapter then examines the prominent patterns by source category, dividing these into nouns and verbs. In the nominal category, four source construction types are illustrated with the reanalyses that led to their emergence as grammatical forms such as postpositions, conjunctions, and auxiliaries. In the verbal category, four source construction types are illustrated, with special focus on the grammaticalization of de-verbal postpositions and auxiliary verbs. The chapter further addresses select aspects of Korean grammaticalization from a typological perspective. It discusses the productive use of affixes, converbs, and predicatives known as “mermaid constructions”, which are among the characteristics shared by many languages in the eastern Eurasian region. It also discusses the presence of large inventories of de-verbal postpositions and numeral classifiers.

This chapter examines models of multilingual education currently implemented in formal education systems around the world. Within the presentation of these models the chapter addresses the ideologies underlying the conceptualisations of the various programmes, the issue of the choice of language to be learned in relation to local contexts, types of learners enrolled in these programmes and the diverse outcomes of these models. This overview will (1) provide a backdrop to a discussion on the dominance of English and dominant European languages within these curricula, and (2) address the minoritisation of migrant and indigenous minority speakers’ bi-multilingualism and home languages. We conclude with a discussion of new approaches to the conceptualisation of multilingual education as a more flexible and dynamic process and the impact of such findings for language policymakers and educators at all levels.

The present chapter discusses children’s multilingual landscapes and language practices in social interaction and in their play. It presents studies on children of various ages, specifically focusing on how children with multilingual linguistic potentials and various kinds of language proficiency encounter a variety of social settings where multilingual or monolingual discursive practices are used. It discusses main theoretical perspectives on multilingualism, children’s learning and play, and introduces a bottom-up conceptualization of children’s multilingual landscapes. Research highlights how children, in their peer interactions, can use various language ideologies and resources. Children exploit the multilingual character and varieties of languages available in the social context and engage in translanguaging. The chapter reviews research on children’s multilingual peer play, language creativity and metalinguistic awareness. Further, it discusses how children co-create language norms and social order in multilingual peer groups, and how linguistic assets within multilingual families and in multilingual educational environments are invoked and exploited.

Children grow up in societies varying on a continuum between monolingualism and multilingualism. Children from Indigenous/Tribal, Minority and Minoritized communities are subjected to the processes of discrimination and stigmatisation of their languages, and glorification of more dominant languages. The processes of development of childhood multilingualism and multilingual socialisation are discussed in the context of multilingual and relatively monolingual societies. Developmental stages and strategies in multilingual socialisation are discussed to show the complexities in the relationship between multilingual orientation of societies and formal educational practices. We discuss how schools as social power instruments perpetuate inequality and discrimination and violate linguistic human rights of children. Social practices and State (and local) policies in education often promote linguistic homogenisation and loss of childhood multilingualism, leading to (linguistic) genocide in education. In conclusion, the chapter reflects on the meaning and implications of growing up in a multilingual world, and how implementation of children’s LHR can develop and maintain/revitalise multilingualism.

Chapter 12 analyzes the phenomenon whereby various types of elements may appear in postverbal position in Korean: arguments such as the subject, the object, the indirect object, and clausal complements may be dislocated to the right. Moreover, a variety of non-argument projections such as adverbials, prepositional phrases, relative clauses, and small clause predicates may also appear in a postverbal position. The chapter focuses on two basic issues on RDCs: (i) whether the RDC involves a mono-clausal or bi-clausal structure and (ii) whether postverbal elements undergo movement or are base-generated. The chapter also looks into differences among sub-varieties of RDCs in Korean, as classified by the grammatical and semantic function of the Right-Dislocated material, the type of the correlate in the main clause, and the number of dislocated items. Cross-linguistic implications of the Korean data for the current research on RDCs in other languages such as English, Dutch, German, and Bangla are also discussed.

The chapter explores how plurilingualism potentially influences young children's perspectival cognition, including understandings of false belief and implications for cooperative science inquiry.

In an increasing number of families and communities, children grow up in multilingual and multicultural environments. Children thus negotiate their identities while navigating across linguistic practices and ideologies at home, in school, and in community spaces. This paper has two main aims. First, it develops a clearer understanding of developments in the research domain of plurilingualism, identity, childhood and education. Second, it provides insight into the nexus between children’s’ identity construction and larger societal discourses and practices. In the first part, the focus lies on the concept of identity itself and the way it relates to language(s), discourse(s) and societal language ideologies. In the second part, the focus is on some contexts that are especially relevant for the development of children’s linguistic identities and agency, such as family language policies, early childhood education in nurseries, language regimes and pedagogical traditions of language teaching in schools. The important role of educational institutions with regard to the lingua-cultural identity development of children and adolescents in a globalized world becomes more than evident.

Chapter 10 continues with the discussion of prosodic phonology, but shifts the focus to the issue of how prosody relates to constituent structure in Korean. Korean is interesting because various segmental alternations are sensitive to different prosodic levels, thus providing a test case for prosodic phonology. Lenis stop voicing is a segmental alternation that correlates with the presence of a phonological phrase (Silva 1988; Cho 1990; inter alia). Moreover, intonation patterns coupled with segmental alternations supplant additional data for understanding prosodic structure in Korean. In Seoul Korean, an accentual phrase has been argued to have an LHLH accent; this unit also correlates with segmental alternations such as lenis stop voicing (Jun 1993). The sentence phonology of Korean offers insights into the general issue of the prosody-syntax interface and provides many kinds of evidence on how constituent structure affects the organization of sentence phonology. The chapter first reviews earlier research, then proposes a revised version of the general theory of the prosody-syntax interface.

Chapter 4 demonstrates that Korean has deeply influenced its immediate language neighbors: Japanese and Jurchen-Manchu. The Japanese-Korean parallels discussed here have often been presented as proof of their genetic relationship. However, the chapter argues that the overwhelming majority of these parallels are found only in Central Japanese, the Japonic language, with which Korean was in immediate and direct contact. On the other hand, most of the Korean-Jurchen/Manchu comparisons dealt with in this chapter have not previously been discussed. With few exceptions, they are found only in Jurchen and Manchu but not in other Tungusic languages. These exceptions are easily explained as loans from Jurchen or Manchu into the neighboring Southern or Northern Tungusic languages; they are never found in those Northern Tungusic languages, such as Ewenki and Ewen that are located outside of the area.

Chapter 7 deals with a longstanding controversy from both historical and theoretical linguistic perspectives. The chapter provides a description of Korean vowel harmony beginning with an overview of its historical and theoretical linguistic background. Middle Korean displays relatively rigorous patterns of vowel harmony; contemporary varieties show reduced but still complicated patterns that are confined to certain morphological contexts, as a result of historical changes. The description of Korean vowel harmony in this chapter is divided mainly into two parts: the relatively complete vowel harmony system in Middle Korean, and vowel harmony in contemporary (chiefly Seoul) Korean. The former provides an historical and typological overview of the productive MK patterns, while the latter focuses on the exceptions and variations of the remnant harmony patterns in ideophones and verbal inflections. The remainder of the chapter introduces a number of theoretical approaches, from early generative treatments to more recent Optimality Theoretic analyses.

A large body of research has contributed to a complex picture in which bilingualism is generally associated with better performance on some cognitive tasks, particularly those that are based on executive functioning, but poorer performance on measures of verbal proficiency. However, not all studies find these effects, particularly the positive effects on cognitive function. What is now clear is that the potential impact of bilingualism on children’s cognition must be explained through multifaceted examinations of relevant factors and clarification of the specific language context from which the results emerged on an individual basis. We review the evidence for cognitive performance of children in multilingual environments and evaluate those results in terms of the type of cognitive ability being assessed and the type of environment children are experiencing. We also review how early the effects of multilingualism are detected, how long these effects last, and how childhood multilingualism can lead to brain plasticity. We conclude with a brief discussion of how multilingualism impacts other areas of cognitive functioning, such as theory of mind, creativity, and problem solving.